Discussion: Task Groups Group work is a commonly used method within school settings. Because peer in

Task Groups in the School Setting:
Promoting Children’s Social and

Emotional Learning

Patricia Van Velsor
San Francisco State University

Through social and emotional learning (SEL), individuals develop skill in
negotiating relationships successfully and expressing emotions appropriately.
The socially and emotionally intelligent child reaps benefits in school and later
life. Counselors are best qualified to promote children’s SEL and the task group
in the classroom provides an excellent opportunity for them to do so. In the task
group, students can learn and practice crucial skills in vivo while they work
together to complete a task. The counselor’s strategic attention to promoting task
completion while facilitating SEL can serve to highlight the benefits of group work
in the school learning environment.

Keywords: schools; social and emotional learning; task groups

Because humans are social beings, they spend a great deal of time
interacting with others and much of that interaction takes place in
groups. As Sonstegard and Bitter (1998) so aptly stated, ‘‘to be human
is to ‘live’ in groups’’ (p. 251). The group (e.g., family, peer) serves as
the ‘‘primary socializing influence’’ in children’s development (Kulic,
Horne, & Dagley, 2004) and the nature of the social environment in
those groups leads children down a path toward either prosocial or
antisocial behavior and beliefs (Hawkins, Smith, & Catalano, 2004).

Children develop social skills and prosocial behaviors through
social and emotional learning (SEL). Although there are various defi-
nitions of SEL, Zins, Bloodworth, Weissberg and Walberg (2007)
define it succinctly as ‘‘the process through which children enhance
their ability to integrate thinking, feeling, and behaving to achieve
important life tasks’’ (p. 6). Five competency areas—self-awareness,
self-management, social awareness, relationship skills, and responsible

Patricia Van Velsor, Ph.D., is an assistant professor in the Department of Counseling at
San Francisco State University. Correspondence concerning this article should be
addressed to Patricia Van Velsor, Department of Counseling, San Francisco State
University, BH 524, 1600 Holloway Avenue, San Francisco, CA 94132. E-mail:
[email protected]

THE JOURNAL FOR SPECIALISTS IN GROUP WORK, Vol. 34 No. 3, September 2009, 276–292

DOI: 10.1080/01933920903033495

# 2009 ASGW

276

decision-making—are basic to negotiating school, work, and life
responsibilities effectively (Collaborative for Academic, Social, and
Emotional Learning, 2000–2009).

Social and emotional intelligence, acquired through SEL, has been
associated with various positive outcomes in school and life. A socially
and emotionally intelligent child is less likely to develop aggressive-
ness, depression, and=or violent behaviors (Poulou, 2005). Children
who develop social and emotional intelligence are also more resistant
to difficulties related to drugs, teen pregnancy, and gangs (Elias et al.,
1997). Moreover, variations in children’s social and emotional func-
tioning significantly predict current and later academic achievement
(Greenberg, Kusché, & Riggs, 2004; Parker et al., 2004).

The small group in the school setting provides an excellent opportu-
nity for counselors to enhance children’s positive mental health
through SEL. Children can better their social skills, unlearn
inappropriate social behaviors, and try out new skills in a safe
environment (Akos, Hamm, Mack, & Dunaway, 2007; Thompson &
Henderson, 2006). Generally, the small group format used with chil-
dren is psychoeducational (Corey & Corey, 2006) and a common
approach to SEL in the schools is to pull targeted children out of the
classroom to learn about appropriate skills and practice those skills
in a small group. Another approach, however, is to make use of the
task group, which focuses on the application of group process princi-
ples to task completion (Corey & Corey, 2006). If used in the classroom
setting, the task group can offer children the opportunity to learn and
apply social and emotional skills and behaviors in a real life situation
as they work together to accomplish an identified task. Moreover,
when conducted in the classroom setting, all children can profit from
the opportunity to enhance their social and emotional intelligence. The
overall goal is to promote SEL for a broad range of children, which in
turn can lead to other positive outcomes.

When considering the task group in the school setting, it makes
sense that students could benefit in three ways. First, the task group
affords children the opportunity to learn about a topic as they work
together on a project of educational importance. Second, students have
the chance to acquire valuable social and emotional skills for working
in groups related to cooperation, collaboration, and mutual respect.
Third, students may well gain a sense of accomplishment when the
task is completed, hopefully bolstering self-esteem.

The purpose of this article is to encourage counselors to embrace the
task group model in the classroom setting to promote the SEL of
students in vivo and to help equip all students with the social and
emotional tools necessary to work cooperatively and collaboratively
in a group. In order to implement the task group, counselors must

Van Velsor/TASK GROUPS IN THE SCHOOL SETTING 277

develop a clear understanding of this approach and its multiple
benefits in the classroom setting. With this knowledge, counselors
can then determine ways to identify appropriate tasks for school
groups, and develop strategies to facilitate both task completion and
group process for optimal SEL.

UNDERSTANDING THE TASK GROUP MODEL
AND ITS BENEFITS

Before initiating the task group in schools, it is important to under-
stand the goals of a task group. The main goal of the group is completing
a task (e.g., a work project, event planning) rather than changing the
individual for therapeutic reasons or personal growth (Gladding, 2008).
However, successful functioning of the task group requires attention
to the principles of group dynamics aimed at accomplishing the task
and improving interpersonal interaction in the process (Corey & Corey,
2006; Gladding, 2008). Although teachers may already assign tasks to
small groups or make use of small group learning in the classroom, they
may lack the necessary skills to facilitate SEL in the group process
(Elias, Bruene-Butler, Blum, & Schuyler, 1997). Counselors, however,
have training in group dynamics and process and can utilize that knowl-
edge to promote SEL as children work together to complete a task.

The task group in a school is different from the typical one in an
organization where each member takes responsibility and is accounta-
ble for his or her own contribution to the overall effort (Katzenbach &
Smith, 2003). Instead children in the schools can benefit from the task
group that operates like a team. Although teams, like other task
groups, focus on results and develop individual products, teams are
more interdependent and more collaborative (Brown, 2009: Gladding
2008; Stanley, 2006). In the team model, there are shared leadership
responsibilities and accountability for the team product; that is, the
team members do ‘‘real work together’’ (Johnson & Johnson, 2009,
p. 527). All students in the schools can benefit from working together
and developing the abilities necessary to function as part of a team.

Because all students can profit from refining their social and
emotional skills, the task group in the school does not necessarily
target students with difficulties. Use of this approach is predicated on
the idea that a primary goal of counseling is to help all children ‘‘learn
to deal with life’’ (T. Gutkin, personal communication, December 2,
2008). Task groups are indeed a part of life; they are omnipresent in
American culture and part of everyday experience (Conyne, Crowell,
& Newmeyer, 2008) in schools, churches, work places, and community
settings. The skills learned can help children fulfill their roles

278 THE JOURNAL FOR SPECIALISTS IN GROUP WORK / September 2009

successfully in family, school, friend, and work groups (Goleman,
1995). Promoting SEL for all students aligns with the Executive
Summary of the American School Counselor Association (ASCA,
2005), which directs school counselors to ‘‘identify and deliver the
knowledge and skills all students should acquire’’ (p. 1). Additionally,
SEL aligns with the public school’s mission to ‘‘assist in the socializa-
tion of the young,’’ identified in a U. S. Supreme Court case (i.e.,
Wisconsin V. Yoder) (Adelman & Taylor, 2003, p. 85).

Another noteworthy benefit of the task group in the classroom is
that it allows students to learn skills in vivo. Although teaching social
and emotional skills is important; providing children the opportunity
for ‘‘real-world application’’ of those skills is critical (Elias, 2004).
During transactions to complete a task, interpersonal exchanges hap-
pen naturally in the classroom, that is, authentic interaction occurs.
As differences in ideas and issues related to completing the task
surface and accompanying affect emerges, counselors can facilitate
the interchanges quickly (Barratt & Kerman, 2001). The counselor is
at hand to help children manage their emotions, effectively navigate
their interactions, and successfully negotiate their differences for opti-
mal SEL. For students with behavioral concerns, who may not be able
to transfer skills from the counseling group to the classroom (Clark &
Breman, 2009), this real world experience may be essential to their
social and emotional development.

Students at risk for difficulties may benefit in other ways by culti-
vating social and emotional abilities in the classroom. In a counseling
group for social skill development, targeted students may have similar
difficulties and inadvertently learn inappropriate behaviors from each
other. In the classroom setting, however, students with less developed
social and emotional skills interact with students at higher skill levels
and can learn informally from the modeling of other students. Lopes
and Salovey (2004) identified informal learning, where students learn
behaviors through ‘‘experience, modeling, and observing’’ as a
valuable way to promote SEL (p. 78).

The task group as proposed here may also serve to highlight the
usefulness of group work in learning. Social factors often influence
learning, because effective learning frequently involves the ability to
communicate, interact, and collaborate with co-learners as well as tea-
chers, peers, and families (McCombs, 2004; Zins et al., 2007). The task
group offers a fertile environment for students to develop positive
social relationships as they develop their academic skills. As children
learn to collaborate and function interdependently in the task group, a
better fit or ‘‘improved ecological concordance’’ between students and
their school environment emerges, which in turn can improve student
success both in and out of schools (Conyne & Mazza, 2007). Successful

Van Velsor/TASK GROUPS IN THE SCHOOL SETTING 279

use of the task group by the counselor may then motivate teachers
to adopt the small group as part of the learning environment for
children.

IDENTIFYING A FOCUS FOR THE TASK GROUP

Although a significant goal in utilizing the task group is to promote
social and emotional learning, it is critical for the counselor to identify
a project that clearly incorporates an aspect of the school mission. For
example, a project might focus on an academic goal of a particular
classroom or grade level (e.g., meeting a specific curriculum objective),
or a school or community goal (e.g., conducting a service learning
activity).

The list of projects that could be implemented to address SEL in a
task group is endless and any activity that requires student collabora-
tion in a small group could work. As an example, the literature circle, a
language arts activity designed to engage students in reflection and
critical thinking about reading (Daniels, 2001), could provide an excel-
lent opportunity for incorporating SEL; because it can be adapted for
all age levels, already uses a small group format, and has been applied
in both mathematics (Kridler & Moyer-Packenham, 2008) and science
(Straits, 2007). In a typical model, the teacher assigns roles (e.g., facil-
itator, illustrator) and has students work on their tasks independently
before coming together for discussion. In the task group model, how-
ever, the teacher extends the process by assigning a project. The task
can be as simple as making a poster to represent the feelings of differ-
ent characters in a story or as involved as creating a video to explore
character identity development related to the events in the reading.
The students then decide on what roles are necessary and how they
need to work together to complete the task. Although schools most
likely will already have designated readings within their curriculum,
the counselor may want to suggest books from the Bibliotherapy Edu-
cation Project (http://library.unlv.edu/faculty/research/bibliotherapy/),
which offers an excellent list of books that focus on both counseling
and education topics.

Counselors who have not been teachers may balk at the idea of
focusing a group on an academic task; however, the counselor need
not be an expert in an academic area. The teacher provides the aca-
demic expertise while the counselor promotes the social and emotional
development. The logistics will require close collaboration between the
counselor and the teacher to create a suitable arrangement. After the
task has been identified, the counselor may circulate among various
task groups or work with one group at a time while the teacher works

280 THE JOURNAL FOR SPECIALISTS IN GROUP WORK / September 2009

with the remaining students. In the task group, the counselor can
serve as a co-learner while he or she weaves SEL skill development
into the process and facilitates group interactions aimed at successful
task completion.

Working in the classroom may represent a paradigm shift for
counselors. However, it is consistent with a new ‘‘inclusion’’ model of
school counseling suggested by Clark and Breman (2009). This model
requires that all students receive counseling support through innova-
tive interventions in classroom settings and requires counselors to col-
laborate and consult closely with teachers. The task group model
proposed here complements the Clark and Breman model, because it
necessitates collaboration with teachers and other school personnel
to identify a suitable project and involves implementation of the task
group in the classroom.

The best way to identify an appropriate task is through familiarity
with the school context. The school counselor who has been in the
school will already have intimate knowledge of school culture, but will
still need to spend time observing school activities and soliciting input
from others. The counselor new to the school, on the other hand, must
become well acquainted with the school environment by getting to
know, first students and school personnel (e.g., teachers, administra-
tors, teachers), and then parents and community members. What
are the educational goals that the teachers share? What is necessary
to promote the achievement of the student body? For example, if there
are a large number of students living in poverty, what projects would
support their unique needs—in the classroom, the school, and the
community? Immersion in the culture—both school and surrounding
community—allows the counselor not only to identify projects that
support the school mission but also to design tasks that are sensitive
to values of the population served. Service learning projects that
require collaborative efforts offer excellent opportunities for addres-
sing community needs and, at the same time, enhancing students’
social and emotional abilities. For example, small groups of younger
students may decide on a gift appropriate for a local senior center,
design the necessary steps to make their gifts, and finally, create
the gifts. Older students may research community needs and then
work together in small groups to design and carry out community pro-
jects. Although there are a variety of websites that describe school
service learning projects, one particularly comprehensive list for both
elementary and secondary levels comes from Mesa Service Learning
(http://www2.mpsaz.org/msl/about/).

The most important school personnel with whom to collaborate are
teachers, because counselors will need their support to carve out time
and space for the task group. Common complaints of teachers are that

Van Velsor/TASK GROUPS IN THE SCHOOL SETTING 281

SEL activities take time away from an already overloaded academic
schedule (Elias, Bruene-Butler, Blum, & Schuyler, 2000; Mildener &
Keane, 2006). Careful selection of task group focus, however, helps
sidestep the criticism that time spent on social and emotional skill
development usurps valuable academic time. Rather, teachers view
the task as supporting their efforts rather than auxiliary to their
academic goals. At the same time, working closely with teachers in
the classroom may stimulate more positive attitudes toward SEL
activities and small group learning.

With a task identified, a counselor must not only assist children in
completing the task, but also help them to understand the importance
of the group process in task completion. Effective SEL in the task
group requires that children learn cooperation, social skills, and
prosocial values (Johnson & Johnson, 2004).

FACILITATING THE TASK GROUP FOR OPTIMAL SEL

A counselor facilitating a task group with children for optimal SEL
must perform a variety of functions. Unfortunately, in a recent survey
of 802 school counselors, many participants reported a lack of group
training aimed at working with children and adolescents in the
schools (Steen, Bauman, & Smith, 2008). Although the following infor-
mation is not meant to substitute for group training, it does provide an
overview of functions that school counselors should feel comfortable
performing in order to facilitate a task group successfully for SEL.
The primary functions involve fostering positive interdependence
through team building and promoting interpersonal process by setting
appropriate structure and bolstering skill development. The literature
on process in children’s groups is scant (Leichtentritt & Shechtman,
1998; Shechtman & Yanov, 2001); however, along with the literature
on task groups with adults, it provides some direction for the counselor
carrying out these functions.

Building a Team

Simply assigning a task and asking children to work together
does not assure that they will become a team (Prichard, Bizo, &
Stratford, 2006). Therefore it is the responsibility of the counselor to
incorporate ways to build group cohesiveness. In an investigation of
children’s groups, child participants identified group cohesiveness—
encouragement, support, and acceptance from others—as the most
important factor in their group experience (Shechtman & Gluk,
2005). Thus, it is important to help children build new relationships

282 THE JOURNAL FOR SPECIALISTS IN GROUP WORK / September 2009

or strengthen existing relationships around working on the task. So,
although task completion is primary, failure to attend to relationships
of students could result in negative outcomes for task completion and
learning.

Students in a school may already have formed relationships; how-
ever, counselors will need to develop activities focused on building
interdependent relationships and identifying appropriate norms of
behavior. Effective task groups devote time to learning about one
another, to culture building, and to nurturing collaboration and coop-
eration (Hulse-Killacky, Killacky, & Donigian, 2001). Because team
building involves learning prosocial behavior, norms should include
discussion of respect for others and promotion of other members’
efforts. Clear expectations for task completion and group behavior will
enhance student learning related to completing the task and acquiring
interpersonal skill in doing so.

Establishing Appropriate Structure

To promote SEL through the interpersonal process of the group,
counselors must establish appropriate structure. Counselors can do
so by attending to the developmental level of the children in the group
(Rosenthal, 2005); younger children need more structure. For all chil-
dren, counselors need to provide more structure early in the group’s
development. Group facilitators optimize children’s experiences in
groups when they provide a safe environment for children to try out
behaviors (Mayerson, 2000) and the appropriate level of structure
helps provide that safe space.

An ideal structure for a task group involves balancing content and
process (Hulse-Killacky, Kraus, & Schumacher, 1999). The content
component of a group refers to the information shared; in a task group,
the counselor should make sure that all children clearly understand
the purpose of the group and the goals related to the task. Addition-
ally, the counselor should pay attention to the content that children
share to get a sense of each child’s strengths and how he or she can
contribute to task completion. Too much attention to content in a task
group, however, may actually interfere with progress toward complet-
ing the task (Hulse-Killacky et al., 1999). The process component of a
task group deserves equal attention. Yalom (2002) defines process as,
‘‘the nature of the relationship between the people in the interaction’’
(p. 109). As it applies to the task group, process refers to the relation-
ships between and among children and how those relationships
promote or inhibit task completion. By attending to the process, coun-
selors can make sure that all children share their ideas, experiences,
and thoughts and contribute to accomplishing the task.

Van Velsor/TASK GROUPS IN THE SCHOOL SETTING 283

In a successful group, the counselor does not attend to the process
alone; he or she makes sure that participants also attend to that pro-
cess. From the onset of the group, the counselor structures a reflective
environment in which children evaluate the interactions and
dynamics of the group (Barratt & Kerman, 2001). The counselor fre-
quently encourages children to examine their relationships to identify
how well they are working together and how they can better their
effectiveness (Johnson & Johnson, 2009).

Although structure is essential to group work with children, facili-
tators can best promote children’s SEL by knowing when to allow free-
dom within the structure. An important value of group work—that it
reflects real life most accurately (Akos, 2000)—is lost if a group is too
structured. A challenge is finding the balance between permissiveness
and appropriate structure and limits. In an exploratory study of
dynamics in children’s therapy groups, Mayerson (2000) found that
facilitators’ willingness to join the play process, when appropriate,
contributed to positive outcomes. Applying this to the task group, a
counselor must be flexible and fluid in stepping forward to take the
leadership role and stepping back to let the children lead. Johnson
and Johnson (2009) maintain that facilitators must decide when to
direct the children’s group, be ‘‘a sage on the stage,’’ or to be their
assistant, ‘‘a guide on the side’’ (p. 497). Children can lead their own
group when they have developed the ability to reflect on their indivi-
dual and group behaviors and the skills necessary for working with
others.

Bolstering Skill Development

Important for the task group is development of skill in giving feed-
back, making decisions together, and solving problems and resolving
conflict. The ability to give constructive feedback sets the stage for
the other skills. In a task group, timely feedback fosters team develop-
ment; because it increases member motivation and provides data to
help members work together effectively (Birmingham & McCord,
2004). In a study of interpretative responses—confrontation, interpre-
tation, and feedback—of preadolescents in groups, Shechtman and
Yanov (2001) found that high quality feedback (i.e., direct and honest
personal reaction) precipitated productive responses (i.e., exploration,
insight, or change) while high quality interpretation (supportive
explanation of one’s behavior, feelings, or thoughts) or confrontation
(highlighting incongruencies) precipitated unproductive responses
(e.g., resistance, agreement). The authors concluded that minimizing
confrontation and maximizing high-quality feedback was most helpful
in group work with children.

284 THE JOURNAL FOR SPECIALISTS IN GROUP WORK / September 2009

The challenge in the task group lies in helping children learn to give
constructive feedback (i.e., direct and honest personal reaction) that
supports task completion. This begins with counselor modeling; simply
by listening, paraphrasing, asking open questions, that is, using basic
counseling skills, counselors provide a positive example for children
and promote SEL. In using these skills, it is important that counselors
attend to the age of the children in the group to adapt those skills
appropriately (see Van Velsor, 2004). If children learn these skills,
they help to create a safe environment and set the stage for giving con-
structive feedback to each other related to task completion. Drawing
from several task group models, Hulse-Killacky et al. (1999) suggest
that members create guidelines for giving and receiving feedback,
reflect on behaviors and interactions that support or inhibit the group
work, and give clear feedback (i.e., using ‘‘I’’ statements, speaking
directly to others). Initially the counselor will model and direct appro-
priate communications, but children should eventually learn to
provide their own feedback. According to Sonstegard and Bitter
(1998), accurate feedback from children may facilitate the group pro-
cess better than feedback from counselors.

Along with communication skills, children need to develop the
abilities necessary for decision making in task groups. Because good
decision making depends on effective processing of emotions (Bechara,
Damasio, & Bar-On, 2007), an important step is helping children
to develop skill in monitoring emotions that arise when differences
occur. In the task group, counselors can guide children in regulating
their emotional reactions and applying self-control in interpersonal
communication. Regulating emotion and gaining control gives chil-
dren access to the clear thinking needed for problem solving (Elias,
2004). Johnson and Johnson (1995) identified a helpful process for
problem-solving negotiation, in which children (a) describe what they
want and feel along with the rationale for those, (b) listen and commu-
nicate understanding of other children’s perspectives, (c) formulate
three optional plans, and (d) select a plan from those options. This
model provides the opportunity for children to practice perspective-
taking, which is foundational to the development of empathy (Shapiro,
1997).

When problem solving among children breaks down and conflict
arises, the counselor will need to serve as mediator allowing time for
cooling off as necessary, ensuring commitment to mediation, and guid-
ing children through the problem-solving process (Johnson & Johnson,
1995). Formalizing the agreement (e.g., with a handshake) is part of
both problem solving and conflict resolution procedures.

Once counselors have provided strategies for decision making,
problem-solving, and conflict resolution, they must decide when to

Van Velsor/TASK GROUPS IN THE SCHOOL SETTING 285

let children direct the process and when they need to intercede. Some
group facilitators may tend to intervene quickly in any disputes,
conflict, or disagreement among children (Rosenthal, 2005) denying
them the experience of solving issues on their own, and in turn inhibit-
ing their SEL from the process. On the other hand, an environment
that encourages creative and collaborative decision making, problem
solving, and conflict resolution by children promotes their optimal
social and emotional development.

PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER

Designing a task group for the classroom will require considerable
collaborative planning to identify what works with which students
based on academic learning objectives as well as student developmen-
tal level and culture. The counselor, in collaboration with the teacher,
must decide how much advance psychoeducation the students will
need related to decision making, problem solving, and conflict. It is
always best to discuss conflict resolution procedures before a heated
emotional situation arises.

Implementation would typically begin with a teacher describing an
academic assignment. Using the literature circle example, the teacher
asks students to rank a list of stories or books based on their interests.
The teacher …

Competency Chapter

Competency 1: Demonstrate Ethical and Professional Behavior

Behaviors
Make ethical decisions by applying the standards of the NASW Code of Ethics, relevant laws and
regulations, models for ethical decision-making, ethical conduct of research, and additional codes of
ethics as appropriate to context.

1, 7, 13, 14

Use reflection and self-regulation to manage personal values and maintain professionalism in practice
situations

1, 4, 5

Demonstrate professional demeanor in behavior; appearance; and oral, written, and electronic
communication

1, 6, 7

Use technology ethically and appropriately to facilitate practice outcomes 1, 6, 14

Use supervision and consultation to guide professional judgment and behavior 1, 4

Competency 2: Engage Diversity and Difference in Practice

Behaviors
Apply and communicate understanding of the importance of diversity and difference in shaping life
experiences in practice at the micro, mezzo, and macro levels

3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,
11, 12

Present themselves as learners and engage clients and constituencies as experts of their own
experiences

1, 5, 8, 14

Apply self-awareness and self-regulation to manage the influence of personal biases and values in
working with diverse clients and constituencies

1, 4, 5, 7, 8

Competency 3: Advance Human Rights and Social, Economic, and
Environmental Justice

Behaviors
Apply their understanding of social, economic, and environmental justice to advocate for human rights
at the individual and system levels

4, 5, 8, 9

Engage in practices that advance social, economic, and environmental justice 3, 4, 5, 9

Competency 4: Engage In Practice-informed Research and Research-informed
Practice

Behaviors
Use practice experience and theory to inform scientific inquiry and research 2, 3, 8, 14

Apply critical thinking to engage in analysis of quantitative and qualitative research methods and
research findings

2, 4, 8, 10, 14

Use and translate research evidence to inform and improve practice, policy, and service delivery 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10,
11, 12, 13, 14

Competency 5: Engage in Policy Practice

Behaviors
Identify social policy at the local, state, and federal level that impacts well-being, service delivery, and
access to social services

1, 4, 5, 11, 12

CSWE EPAS 2015 Core Competencies and Behaviors in This Text

A01_TOSE0283_08_SE_FM.indd 1 01/05/17 11:30 AM

Competency Chapter

Assess how social welfare and economic policies impact the delivery of and access to social services 1, 5, 10, 12

Apply critical thinking to analyze, formulate, and advocate for policies that advance human rights and
social, economic, and environmental justice

1, 5, 8, 12

Competency 6: Engage with Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and
Communities

Behaviors

Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other
multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks to engage with clients and constituencies

2, 3, 6, 7, 9, 10,
11, 12

Use empathy, reflection, and interpersonal skills to effectively engage diverse clients and constituencies 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 11

Competency 7: Assess Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and
Communities

Behaviors

Collect and organize data, and apply critical thinking to interpret information from clients and
constituencies

4, 7, 8, 12, 14

Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and
other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in the analysis of assessment data from clients and
constituencies

2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8

Develop mutually agreed-on intervention goals and objectives based on the critical assessment of
strengths, needs, and challenges within clients and constituencies

6, 7, 8, 9, 14

Select appropriate intervention strategies based on the assessment, research knowledge, and values
and preferences of clients and constituencies

3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 11

Competency 8: Intervene with Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations,
and Communities

Behaviors
Critically choose and implement interventions to achieve practice goals and enhance capacities of
clients and constituencies

1, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10,
11, 12, 13

Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other
multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in interventions with clients and constituencies

2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10,
11, 12, 13

Use inter-professional collaboration as appropriate to achieve beneficial practice outcomes 8, 9, 10, 11, 12

Negotiate, mediate, and advocate with and on behalf of diverse clients and constituencies 5, 8, 9, 10, 12

Facilitate effective transitions and endings that advance mutually agreed-on goals 13

Competency 9: Evaluate Practice with Individuals, Families, Groups,
Organizations, and Communities

Behaviors
Select and use appropriate methods for evaluation of outcomes 6, 8, 11, 14

Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other
multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in the evaluation of outcomes

1, 4, 5, 6, 8, 14

Critically analyze, monitor, and evaluate intervention and program processes and outcomes 5, 6, 8, 14

Apply evaluation findings to improve practice effectiveness at the micro, mezzo, and macro levels 14

CSWE EPAS 2015 Core Competencies and Behaviors in This Text

Adapted with permission of Council on Social Work Education. These competencies and behaviors also appear in the margins throughout this text.

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Harlow, England • London • New York • Boston • San Francisco • Toronto • Sydney • Dubai • Singapore
Hong Kong • Tokyo • Seoul • Taipei New Delhi • Cape Town • Sao Paulo • Mexico City • Madrid • Amsterdam
Munich • Paris • Milan

An Introduction to
Group Work Practice
Ronald W. Toseland
University at Albany, State University of New York

Robert F. Rivas
Siena College, Emeritus

EIghTh EDITIoN

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To our parents, Stella and Ed, Marg and Al

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6

Contents

Preface 13

1. Introduction 17
Organization of the Text 18
The Focus of Group Work Practice 18
Values and Ethics in Group Work Practice 21

Practice Values 21
Practice Ethics 24

Definition of Group Work 27
Classifying Groups 28

Formed and Natural Groups 28
Purpose and Group Work 29
Treatment and Task Groups 29

Group Versus Individual Efforts 32
Advantages and Disadvantages of Treatment Groups 32
Advantages and Disadvantages of Task Groups 34

A Typology of Treatment and Task Groups 35
Treatment Groups 36

Support Groups 36
Educational Groups 38
Growth Groups 39
Therapy Groups 40
Socialization Groups 41
Self-Help Groups 42

Task Groups 44
Groups to Meet Client Needs 44
Groups to Meet Organizational Needs 50
Groups to Meet Community Needs 54

Summary 58

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Contents 7

2. Historical and Theoretical Developments 59
Knowledge f rom Group Work Practice and Practice Research: Treatment Groups 59

Differences Between Casework and Group Work 60
Intervention Targets 61
The Weakening of Group Work 62
Current Practice Trends 63
Divergent and Unified Practice Models 66
Evidence-based Group Work Practice 67
The Popularity of Psycho-educational, Structured, Practice Models 68

Knowledge f rom Group Work Practice: Task Groups 69
Knowledge f rom Social Science Research 70
Inf luential Theories 72

Systems Theory 72
Psychodynamic Theory 75
Learning Theory 76
Field Theory 77
Social Exchange Theory 79
Constructivist, Empowerment, and Narrative Theories 80

Summary 81

3. Understanding Group Dynamics 83
The Development of Helpful Group Dynamics 83
Group Dynamics 84

Communication and Interaction Patterns 84
Group Cohesion 95
Social Integration and Inf luence 99
Group Culture 105

Stages of Group Development 108
Summary 112

4. Leadership 114
Leadership, Power, and Empowerment 115

Leadership, Empowerment, and the Planned Change Process 118
Theories of Group Leadership 119
Factors Inf luencing Group Leadership 120
Effective Leadership 121

An Interactional Model of Leadership 122
Purposes of the Group 122
Type of Problem 123
The Environment 125
The Group as a Whole 126
The Group Members 127
The Group Leader 128

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8 Contents

Group Leadership Skills 129
Facilitating Group Processes 130
Data-Gathering and Assessment 134
Action Skills 136
Learning Group Leadership Skills 143
Leadership Style 144

Co-leadership 148
Summary 151

5. Leadership and Diversity 153
Approaches to Multicultural Group Work 154
A Framework for Leading Diverse Groups 155

Developing Cultural Sensitivity 156
Assessing Cultural Inf luences on Group Behavior 160
Intervening with Sensitivity to Diversity 166

Summary 175

6. Planning the Group 176
Planning Focus 176
Planning Model for Group Work 178

Establishing the Group’s Purpose 178
Assessing Potential Sponsorship and Membership 179
Recruiting Members 185
Composing the Group 188
Orienting Members 194
Contracting 196
Preparing the Environment 198
Reviewing the Literature 200
Selecting Monitoring and Evaluation Tools 201
Preparing a Written Group Proposal 202
Planning Distance Groups 202

Summary 211

7. The Group Begins 212
Objectives in the Beginning Stage 213

Ensuring a Secure Environment 214
Introducing New Members 215
Defining the Purpose of the Group 220
Confidentiality 223
Helping Members Feel a Part of the Group 225
Guiding the Development of the Group 226
Balancing Task and Socio-emotional Foci 231
Goal Setting in Group Work 231

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Contents 9

Contracting 234
Facilitating Members’ Motivation 235
Addressing Ambivalence and Resistance 235
Working with Involuntary Members 240
Anticipating Obstacles 242
Monitoring and Evaluating the Group: The Change Process Begins 243

Summary 245

8. Assessment 246
Conducting Efffective Assessments 247

Focus on Group Processes 248
External Constituencies and Sponsors 249

The Assessment Process 249
How Much Information? 250
Diagnostic Labels 251
Assessment Focus 252
Relationship of Assessment to the Change Process and Problem Solving 253

Assessing the Functioning of Group Members 254
Methods for Assessing Group Members 255

Assessing the Functioning of the Group as a Whole 262
Assessing Communication and Interaction Patterns 262
Assessing Cohesion 263
Assessing Social Integration 265
Assessing Group Culture 270

Assessing the Group’s Environment 271
Assessing the Sponsoring Organization 271
Assessing the Interorganizational Environment 273
Assessing the Community Environment 274

Linking Assessment to Intervention 276
Summary 279

9. Treatment Groups: Foundation Methods 280
Middle-Stage Skills 280

Preparing for Group Meetings 281
Structuring the Group’s Work 285
Involving and Empowering Group Members 291
Helping Members Achieve Goals 293
Using Empirically Based Treatment Methods in Therapy Groups 303
Working with Reluctant and Resistant Group Members During the Middle Phase 305
Monitoring and Evaluating the Group’s Progress 308

Summary 310

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10 Contents

10. Treatment Groups: Specialized Methods 311
Overreliance on Specialized Methods 311

Intervening with Group Members 312
Intrapersonal Interventions 313
Identifying and Discriminating 314
Recognizing Associations 315
Analyzing the Rationality of Thoughts and Belief s 316
Changing Thoughts, Belief s, and Feeling States 318
Interpersonal Interventions 326
Learning by Observing Models 327
Environmental Interventions 333
Connecting Members to Concrete Resources 333
Expanding Members’ Social Networks 334
Contingency Management Procedures 335
Modifying Physical Environments 338

Intervening in the Group as a Whole 339
Changing Communication and Interaction Patterns 339
Changing the Group’s Attraction for Its Members 341
Using Social Integration Dynamics Effectively 343
Changing Group Culture 345

Changing the Group Environment 346
Increasing Agency Support for Group Work Services 346
Links with Interagency Networks 348
Increasing Community Awareness 349

Summary 351

11. Task Groups: Foundation Methods 352
The Ubiquitous Task Group 352
Leading Task Groups 353

Leading Meetings 354
Sharing Information 356
Enhancing Involvement and Commitment 358
Developing Information 359
Dealing with Conf lict 361
Making Effective Decisions 364
Understanding Task Groups’ Political Ramifications 366
Monitoring and Evaluating 367
Problem Solving 368

A Model for Effective Problem Solving 369
Identifying a Problem 370
Developing Goals 373
Collecting Data 374
Developing Plans 375

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Contents 11

Selecting the Best Plan 375
Implementing the Plan 376

Summary 378

12. Task Groups: Specialized Methods 380
Small Organizational Groups 380

Brainstorming 380
Variations on Brainstorming 384
Focus Groups 385
Nominal Group Technique 388
Multi-attribute Utility Analysis 392
Quality Improvement Groups 395

Large Organizational Groups 397
Parliamentary Procedure 397
Phillips’ 66 401

Methods for Working with Community Groups 403
Mobilization Strategies 403
Capacity-Building Strategies 405
Social Action Strategies 407

Summary 410

13. Ending the Group’s Work 411
Factors that Inf luence Group Endings 411
The Process of Ending 412
Planned and Unplanned Termination 412

Member Termination 413
Worker Termination 415

Ending Group Meetings 416
Ending the Group as a Whole 418

Learning from Members 418
Maintaining and Generalizing Change Efforts 418
Reducing Group Attraction 424
Feelings About Ending 426
Planning for the Future 428
Making Referrals 429

Summary 432

14. Evaluation 433
Why Evaluate? The Group Worker’s View 435

Reasons for Conducting Evaluations 435
Organizational Encouragement and Support 435

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12 Contents

Time Considerations 436
Selecting a Data Collection Method 436

Evaluation Methods 437
Evaluations for Planning a Group 437

Obtaining Program Information 437
Needs Assessment 438

Evaluations for Monitoring a Group 439
Monitoring Methods 439

Evaluations for Developing a Group 445
Single-System Methods 446
Case Study Methods 449
Participatory Action Research Methods (PARS) 450

Evaluations for Determining Effectiveness and Efficiency 450
Evaluation Measures 454

Choosing Measures 454
Types of Measures 455

Summary 459

Appendix A: Standards for Social Work Practice with Groups 460
Appendix B: Group Announcements 471
Appendix C: Outline for a Group Proposal 473
Appendix D: An Example of a Treatment Group Proposal 474
Appendix E: An Example of a Task Group Proposal 476
References 478
Author Index 507
Subject Index 519

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13

Preface

We are gratified by the wide use of this text by professionals, as well as by educators and
students in undergraduate and graduate courses in schools of social work throughout
the United States and the world.

Because we are committed to presenting a coherent and organized over-
view of g roup work practice f rom a generalist practice perspective, the eighth
edition continues to include typolog ies illustrating group work practice with task
and treatment g roups at the micro-, meso-, and macro-level. Our research and
practice focuses primarily on treatment groups, and the eighth edition continues to
present our interest in improving practice with many different types of treatment
groups.

New to This Edition
• Research on Virtual Groups. In recent years, we have done research on the

uses of virtual group formats (teleconference and Internet groups) and have
included an updated and expanded section on virtual groups in the 6th chapter
of this edition.

• Additional case examples throughout this edition illustrate practice with a wide
variety of groups. These were added based on feedback f rom our students,
reviewers of the book, instructors, and others who have contacted us about
the importance of illustrations of evidence-based practice examples.

• Updated and deeper content of the middle stage chapters on practice with
treatment and task groups. The latest evidence-based treatment and task group
research is incorporated throughout Chapters 9 through 12, and content has
been added, deleted, and changed to ref lect current practice.

• Incorporated the most current literature on working with reluctant and
resistant group members in specific sections of Chapters 7 and 9 and throughout
the text.

• We find that our students face many situations with individuals who have
encountered multiple traumas in their family lives and in the larger social
environment, making them understandably reticent to engage group workers
and fellow group members, and trust in the power of group work to heal. There-
fore, we have updated and expanded sections on working with individuals who
have difficulty engaging in and sustaining work in groups and have added addi-
tional information about conf lict resolution skills as it pertains to both treatment
and task groups.

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• Thoroughly updated Chapter 5 on leadership and diversity as social group work-
ers practice in an increasingly pluralistic society.

• Thoroughly updated reference material and new content f rom evidence-based
practice sources.

About Group Work
Over the years, we have been especially pleased that our text has been used by educators
who are dedicated to improving task group practice within social work. Group work is a
neglected area of social work practice, especially practice with task groups. Most social
workers spend a great deal of time in teams, treatment conferences, and committees,
and many social workers have leadership responsibilities in these groups. Group work is
also essential for effective macro social work practice, and therefore, we have continued
to emphasize practice with community groups. The eighth edition also continues our
focus on three focal areas of practice: (1) the individual group member, (2) the group as
a whole, and (3) the environment in which the group functions. We continue to empha-
size the importance of the latter two focal areas because our experiences in supervising
group workers and students and conducting workshops for professionals have revealed
that the dynamics of a group as a whole and the environment in which groups function
are often a neglected aspect of group work practice.

Connecting Core Competencies Series
This edition is a part of Pearson’s Connecting Core Competencies series, which con-
sists of foundation-level texts that make it easier than ever to ensure students’ success in
learning the nine core competencies as stated in 2015 by the Council on Social Worker
Education. This text contains:

• Core Competency Icons throughout the chapters, directly linking the CSWE
core competencies to the content of the text. Critical thinking questions are also
included to further students’ mastery of the CSWE’s standards.

• For easy reference, a matrix is included at the beginning of the book that
aligns the book chapters with the CSWE Core Competencies and Behavior
Examples.

Instructor Supplements
The following supplemental products may be downloaded f rom www.pearsonglobal
editions.com/toseland.

Instructor’s Resource Manual and Test Bank. This manual contains a sample
syllabus, chapter summaries, learning outcomes, chapter outlines, teaching tips, dis-
cussion questions, multiple-choice and essay assessment items and other supportive
resources.

PowerPoint Slides. For each chapter in the book, we have prepared a PowerPoint
slide deck focusing on key concepts and strategies.

14 Preface

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Acknowledgments
The ideas expressed in this book have evolved during many years of study, practice,
and research. Some of the earliest and most powerful inf luences that have shaped this
effort have come about through our relationships with Bernard Hill, Alan Klein, Sheldon
Rose, and Max Siporin. Their contributions to the development of our thinking are evi-
dent throughout this book. The ideas in this book were also inf luenced by Albert Alissi,
Martin Birnbaum, Leonard Brown, Charles Garvin, Alex Gitterman, Burton Gummer,
Margaret Hartford, Grafton Hull, Jr., Norma Lang, Catherine Papell, William Reid, Beulah
Rothman, Jarrold Shapiro, Laurence Shulman, and Peter Vaughan. Our appreciation
and thanks to the reviewers of the seventh edition who gave us valuable advice for
how to improve this new eighth edition: Tom Broffman, Eastern Connecticut State
University; Daniel B. Freedman, University of South Carolina; Kim Knox, New Mexico
State University; Gayle Mallinger, Western Kentucky University; John Walter Miller, Jr.,
University of Arkansas at Little Rock. We are also indebted to the many practitioners
and students with whom we have worked over the years. Reviewing practice experiences,
discussing group meetings, and providing consultation and supervision to the practitioners
with whom we work with during research projects, supervision, staff meetings, and
workshops has helped us to clarify and improve the ideas presented in this text.

We would also like to acknowledge the material support and encouragement given
to us by our respective educational institutions. The administrative and support staff of
the School of Social Welfare, University at Albany, State University of New York, and
Siena College have played important roles in helping us to accomplish this project. Most
of all, however, we are indebted to our spouses, Sheryl Holland and Donna Allingham
Rivas. Their personal and professional insights have done much to enrich this book.
Without their continuous support and encouragement, we would not have been able to
complete this work. A special note of thanks also goes to Rebecca, Stacey, and Heather
for sacrificing some of their dads’ time so that we are able to keep this book current and
relevant for today’s practice environment.

Ronald W. Toseland
Robert F. Rivas

Acknowledgments for the Global Edition
Pearson would like to thank the following people for their work:

Contributors:
Henglien Lisa Chen, University of

Sussex
Pooja Thakur, writer
Elizabeth Wright, Murdoch University

Reviewers:
Bruce Gillmer, Northumberland, Tyne

and Wear NHS Foundation Trust
Pooja Thakur, writer
Elizabeth Wright, Murdoch University

Preface 15

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17

This text focuses on the practice of group work by professional
social workers. Group work entails the deliberate use of interven-
tion strategies and group processes to accomplish individual, group,
and community goals using the value base and the ethical practice
principles of the social work profession. As one prepares to become
an effective social work practitioner, it is important to realize the
effect that groups have on people’s lives. It is not possible to be a
member of a society without becoming a member or leader of
groups and being inf luenced by others without direct participation.
Internet groups are also becoming more popular as people choose
to meet others in virtually as well as face-to-face. Although it is pos-
sible to live in an isolated manner or on the f ringes of face-to-face
and virtual groups, our social nature makes this neither desirable
nor healthy.

Groups provide the structure on which communities and the
larger society are built. They provide formal and informal struc-
ture in the workplace. They also provide a means through which
relationships with significant others are carried out. Participation
in family groups, peer groups, and classroom groups helps mem-
bers learn acceptable norms of social behavior, engage in satisfying
social relationships, identify personal goals, and derive a variety of
other benefits that result f rom participating in closely knit social
systems. Experiences in social, church, recreation, and other work
groups are essential in the development and maintenance of people
and society. Putnam (2000) points out that there has been a sharp
decline in participation in clubs and other civic organizations and
that social capital is not valued in contemporary society. At the same
time, web-based social network and self-help group sites continue
to grow enormously in popularity, enabling users to keep up con-
tacts with more and more people. One goal of this book is to under-
score the importance of groups as fundamental building blocks for
a connected, vibrant society.

L E A R N I N G O U T C O M E S

• Describe how group work is carried
out using a generalist perspective.

• Demonstrate how values and
professional ethics are applied in
group work practice.

• Define group work and its practice
applications.

• Compare the differences between
task- and treatment-oriented groups.

• List the advantages and
disadvantages of using groups to
help people and to accomplish tasks.

• Describe the types and functions of
treatment groups.

• Define the types and functions of
task groups.

1
Introduction

C H A P T E R O U T L I N E

Organization of the Text 18

The Focus of Group Work
Practice 18

Values and Ethics in Group Work
Practice 21

Definition of Group Work 27

Classifying Groups 28

Group Versus Individual Efforts 32

A Typology of Treatment
and Task Groups 35

Treatment Groups 36

Task Groups 44

Summary 58

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18 Chapter 1

OrganizatiOn Of the text

Group work is a series of activities carried out by the worker during the life of a group.
We have found that it is helpful to conceptualize these activities as being a part of six
developmental stages:

1. Planning

2. Beginning

3. Assessment

4. Middle

5. Ending

6. Evaluation

Groups exhibit certain properties and processes during each stage of their development.
The group worker’s task is to engage in activities that facilitate the growth and development
of the group and its members during each developmental stage. This book is divided into
five parts. Part I focuses on the knowledge base needed to practice with groups. The remain-
ing four parts are organized around each of these six stages of group work practice. Case
studies illustrating each practice stage can be found at the end of Chapters 6 through 14.

the fOcus Of
grOup WOrk practice

Social work practitioners use group work skills to help meet the needs of individual group
members, the group as a whole, and the community. In this text, group work involves the
following elements.

group Work practice
• Practice with a broad range of treatment and task groups
• Generalist practice based on a set of core competencies described in the Educa-

tion Policy and Accreditation Standards (EPAS) of the Council on Social Work
Education (2015)

• A focus on individual group members, the group as a whole,
and the group’s environment

• Critical thinking and evidence-based practice when it exists for
a particular practice problem or issue

• Application of foundation knowledge and skills f rom gener-
alist social work practice to a broad range of leadership and
membership situations

• Specialized knowledge and skills based on a comprehensive
assessment of the needs of particular members and groups

• Recognition of the interactional and situational nature of
leadership

Intervention

Behavior: critically choose and implement
interventions to achieve practice goals and
enhance capacities of clients and constituencies

critical thinking Question: Generalist social
work practice involves many systems. How is
group work related to generalist social work
practice?

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Introduction 19

This text is firmly grounded in a generalist approach to practice. To accomplish the
broad mission and goals of the social work profession, generalist practitioners are ex-
pected to possess core competencies based on the Council on Social Work Education’s
(2015) Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards (EPAS) that enables them to inter-
vene effectively with individuals, families, groups, organizations, and communities. This
text highlights the importance of the generalist practitioner’s acquisition of the core
competencies defined in the EPAS standards.

This text is designed to help generalist practitioners understand how group work
can be used to help individuals, families, groups, organizations, and communities func-
tion as effectively as possible. Most group work texts are focused on the use of groups
for clinical practice, and many focus only on therapy or support groups with little
attention paid to social, recreational, or educational purposes. Scant is made of commit-
tees, teams, and other task groups that all social workers participate in as members and
leaders. Despite the distinctive emphasis of the social work profession on the interface
between individuals and their social environment, in most group work texts, even less
attention is paid …