Getting Organized and Putting the Pieces Together
The police and citizens often have different viewpoints about community policing. Community policing can be very labor intensive and the police often have numerous different types of pressure on them from a variety of locations within the jurisdiction.
For this weeks assignment you are to evaluate how a police agency should deal with the multitude of different types of requests for service that they have and still be able to engage in a robust community-policing effort. Assess how a well-functioning community-oriented policing program can lessen the stress on law enforcement manpower. Determine how the police and citizen groups can effectively communicate with each other.
Write a 2 page APA style paper. Only the body of the paper will count toward the word requirement (title page and references are in addition to the 2 pages)
In your paper, cite at least 2-3 references using the APA style guide format for in-text citation.
Only one reference may be found on the internet. The other references must be found in the library (this includes EBSCO Host and the Gale Criminal Justice Collection).
Click here to view your assignment rubric.
The article attached is the one that is to be used as one of the references. Please use the your own words and not alot of paraphasing please and thank you.
Crowl, J. N. (2017). The effect of community policing on fear and crime reduction, police
legitimacy and job satisfaction: an empirical review of the evidence. Police Practice &
Research, 18(5), 449462. https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2017.1303771
The effect of community policing on fear and crime reduction, police legitimacy and job satisfaction: an empirical review of the evidence.
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Contents
1.Introduction
2.Background
3.Methodology
4.Search strategies for identification of relevant studies
5.Assessing scientific merit
6.Findings
7.Selection of eligible studies
8.Narrative review
9.Fear of crime
10.Citizen perceptions
11.Job satisfaction
12.Crime reduction
13.Discussion
14.Conclusion
15.Notes on contributor
16.Disclosure statement
17.Appendix 1
18.References
Full Text
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Since the 1970s, community policing strategies or the language thereof have been purportedly initiated by a number of police departments nationwide to address notable issues such as crime, neighborhood disorder, and fear of crime. This policing philosophy has received considerable attention and support among scholars, police administrators, and criminal justice practitioners. This article synthesizes the available empirical evidence on the effectiveness of community policing initiatives using a variety of outcome measures. An overview of community policing is first provided with particular attention paid to its essence and objectives. Prior studies that have analyzed community policing effectiveness are then reviewed and assessed in terms of their methodological rigor and scientific merit. A discussion and future research considerations are presented to conclude.
Keywords: Community policing; crime prevention; police legitimacy; fear of crime
Introduction
Community policing is an organizational philosophy that stresses the importance of law enforcement working cooperatively with community members to identify and resolve issues related to crime and disorder. Taken collectively, community policing strategies are designed to increase partnerships between police and the community, while emphasizing problem-solving approaches, to improve overall quality of life for citizens. Through attention to little problems, the police, working together with the community, can reduce issues such as disorder and fear of crime as well as increase attitudes towards and trust in the police (Cole & Smith, [ 1]; Trojanowicz, Kappeler, Gaines, & Bucqueroux, [48]), all of which are factors that can impact crime occurrence. Nevertheless, evaluating the effectiveness of community policing strategies is a very difficult endeavor. This is due, in part, to the lack of conceptual and definitional clarity of community policing strategies along with considerable variation and complexity in strategies and initiatives classified as community policing (Schnebly, [36]; Weisburd & Eck, [54]).
Through a synthesis of the available research evidence, this article seeks to examine the effectiveness of community policing on multiple outcome measures, including fear of crime, police legitimacy, attitudes towards community policing and job satisfaction, and crime. Results, specific to each of these outcome measures, were mixed. As evidenced in the literature, some of the most advantageous community policing strategies enhance citizen attitudes toward the police and the manner in which they view them as a legitimate authority. The ability of community policing to improve officer job satisfaction and reduce fear of crime among citizens is less clear. In addition, contrary to the oft-held perception that community policing reduces crime, no consistent, substantial crime reduction benefit of community policing interventions was found in this review. In the next section, a review of the essence and core elements of community policing is presented. Next, the methodology is provided, with emphasis placed on discussing the criteria used to select and assess the scientific merit of relevant studies. This article concludes with a discussion of the findings and considerations for future research.
Background
Community policing has become an overwhelmingly popular innovation in American policing. This type of strategy, according to Eve and colleagues ([ 9]), arose from reports in the 1960s claiming that there was a large-scale disconnect in the relations between the police and the community. During that period, many individuals began to declare that the police had lost contact with members of the general public, particularly minorities. This policy-community detachment was attributed, in part, to police embracing more of a legalistic approach to policing as well as switching from foot to car patrol (Sherman, Farrington, Welsh, & MacKenzie, [39]). Since this period, many police departments nationwide have reportedly shifted from a reactive, traditional form of policing to a community-based style, or some form thereof.
The concept of community policing has received considerable attention over the years from police administrators, practitioners, and academicians (Hancock, [17]). There is, however, a general lack of consensus among the policing and academic communities regarding how community policing should be conceptualized and operationally defined (Connell, Miggans, & McGloin, [ 4]). This is due, in part, to the considerable variability in the types of initiatives and programs classified as community policing (Schnebly, [36]). One source, the Community-Oriented Policing Services [COPS] ([ 3]), defines community policing as ‘a philosophy that promotes organizational strategies … to proactively address the immediate conditions that give rise to public safety issues such as crime, social disorder, and fear of crime’ (p. 1). The concept, which offers an alternative to the traditional policing model, emphasizes problem-solving strategies along with the importance of community-police partnerships (Eve et al., [ 9]).
The concept of community policing, according to Skogan and Hartnett ([43]), involves a number of elements. These characteristics include: ( 1) the decentralization of authority, ( 2) an emphasis on problem-oriented strategies, ( 3) a focus on facilitating public involvement in influencing the decision-making priorities of the police, and ( 4) empowering citizens to take an active role in preventing crime in their own communities. Collectively, these elements emphasize the need for the police and the community to collaboratively work together to reduce neighborhood crime and disorder. Moreover, community-oriented policing strategies commonly accentuate crime prevention through environmental manipulation and increased communal awareness of strategies for target hardening (Davis, Henderson, & Merrick, [ 7]; Skogan, [40]).
Community policing can take many forms, with its objectives being just as diversified. Sherman and colleagues ([39]) described several interrelated objectives or philosophies of this type of policing strategy. An overarching objective of a community policing model is focused on increasing the quality and quantity of contact between police and the community. At the center of this objective is the belief that the police and the community should proactively cooperate with each other as often as possible to address issues associated with crime, disorder, and fear of crime within a geographic area or community (Gill, Weisburd, Telep, Vitter, & Bennett, [12]; Schnebly, [36]; Sherman et al., [39]). This collaborative effort can involve things such as neighborhood watch programs, community meetings, door-to-door visits, and police storefronts (Sherman et al., [39]).
Another objective of community policing involves increasing the flow of knowledge and information between the community and the police. This sharing of knowledge is reciprocal in nature. The assumption is that by mutually sharing information and knowledge, the police and the community can cohesively work together to develop an effective partnership that can help reduce neighborhood disorder and crime (Ganapathy, [11]; Moore, [24]). Citizens, for example, can work closely with the police by readily reporting criminal and deviant behavior that occurs within their own neighborhood (Schnebly, [36]). Similarly, the police can proactively work with citizens to emphasize the rewards of reporting behavior. When the police are engaged and more visible within a community, there is evidence to suggest that they will be viewed in more favorable terms by citizens (Cole & Smith, [ 1]; Skogan, [40], [41]). This, in turn, can result in citizens being more likely to cooperate with the police and comply with their directives.
Community policing activities can impact the extent to which citizens view the police as legitimate authority figures. The legitimacy of policing is evidenced by the extent in which individuals are willing to accept police directives and comply with their requests (Hinds & Murphy, [19]). This concept involves the attitudes that the general public has regarding fairness and equity in operations of the police; it can be achieved through procedurally just policing. When the police treat citizens in a procedurally fair manner, people are more likely to view them as being legitimate, which can lead to a greater amount of amenability, collaboration and trust between both groups. Police activities, then, can have a direct impact on the way in which people perceive them as a legitimate authority. This legitimacy can be maintained and even enhanced through the effectiveness of law enforcement in preventing crime and maintaining social order in a community (Hinds & Murphy, [19]; Skogan, [41]; Tyler, [50]).
Recently, Gill et al. ([12]) conducted a systematic review, using meta-analytical procedures, to examine the effect of community policing on various outcomes, including fear of crime, police legitimacy, official crime, and satisfaction with the police. The review was extensive and methodologically rigorous; however, it failed to consider a vital factor in assessing community policing that is, the extent in which community policing can influence officer job satisfaction. It stands to reason that for community policing activities to be effective, officers must ‘buy into’ the intervention, in theory and practice, and embrace the elements of problem-solving and, more broadly, organizational change. If officers fail to fully accept these strategies, or if they resist, their efforts toward community-oriented policing may not be as effective, thereby perhaps leading to greater levels of job dissatisfaction. This review assesses extant evaluation research on community policing, with a focus on police officer perceptions of job satisfaction along with other non-crime and crime-reduction outcomes, thus considerably extending the current literature.
Methodology
The purpose of this article is to synthesize the community policing literature and assess the scientific merit of studies that examine the impact of community policing on fear and crime reduction, police legitimacy, and job satisfaction. In selecting studies for inclusion in this review, the following criteria were used:
?( 1) The study assessed a particular strategy or initiative that falls under the auspice of community policing. Suitable studies included those that brought together citizens and the police in an effort to jointly identify and/or solve problems. Examples of relevant strategies include community meetings, providing information to the community, increasing police-community contacts, door-to-door police visits, and problem-solving initiatives that involve community collaboration with law enforcement.
?( 2) The research design employed to examine the community policing strategy was described in sufficient detail to permit for an analysis of the study’s scientific merit.
?( 3) There was a reported direct outcome measure related to crime, fear of crime, police legitimacy and/or attitudes of police toward job satisfaction or community policing.
?( 4) Any study, published or unpublished, since 1970 was eligible for inclusion in this review. This period coincides with the paradigm shift from the professional policing era to the beginning of a new community policing philosophy and the increased interest thereto.
Search strategies for identification of relevant studies
Several search strategies were utilized to identify relevant studies for this review. Online academic databases from multiple disciplines, including criminal justice, criminology, law, and psychology, were searched using these keywords: community policing, crime prevention, community problem solving, community-oriented interventions, police-community relations, and police legitimacy. In addition, the websites of governmental agencies, such as the National Institute of Justice, the RAND Corporation, and the Police Foundation, were searched to identify relevant studies for inclusion. Abstracts from leading policing journals along with the reference lists of extant community policing studies were also reviewed. Lastly, contact with colleagues and key policing scholars aided in obtaining any study that was unavailable in one of the online databases, thereby helping to ensure the comprehensiveness of this review.
Studies included in this review were identified through the use of the aforementioned parameters. It is anticipated that differences in the outcome measures (e.g., fear of crime, police legitimacy, job satisfaction, crime) will emerge based on the community policing activities assessed in each study. The methodologies, research designs and treatment effects employed in these studies vary quite considerably, and as a result, the decision was made not to conduct a meta-analysis. To add context, Gill and colleagues ([12]) utilized meta-analytical procedures to quantitatively examine the effect of community policing on various outcomes. Although rigorous, the study may have overestimated the true effect size while ignoring key methodological and outcome differences across the studies that were included, despite making an effort to overcome some inherent challenges of a meta-analysis design. To this end, and considering the substantial heterogeneity in the studies reviewed in this study, the decision was made to not include a summary of statistical effect. The following section describes the manner in which the strength of evidence of each study was assessed for scientific merit and methodological rigor.
Assessing scientific merit
Evaluating the merit and methodological rigor of research evidence is an important undertaking. In a report submitted to Congress, which was based on a review of more than 500 evaluations of crime prevention strategies, Sherman ([38]) laid the groundwork for the development of the Maryland Scientific Methods Scale. Based on a classic book by Cook and Campbell ([ 5]), the scale was designed to measure internal validity using specific criteria that serve as an indicator of methodological quality. The scale, which corresponds to the five research designs typically used in policing evaluations, is as follows:
?( 1) Correlations at one point in time (e.g., fear of crime was lower in areas where community policing tactics were used).
?( 2) Before-and-after differences, with no control condition (e.g., fear of crime decreased after the adoption of community policing strategies in an area).
?( 3) Before-and-after differences with comparable control conditions (e.g., fear of crime decreased in the targeted area but remained unchanged in the control area.
?( 4) Before-and-after comparisons in experimental and control groups, controlling for other influential constructs (e.g., fear of crime in community policing area decreased compared to fear of crime control area, after controlling for community variables.
?( 5) Randomized experiments with control conditions (e.g., areas randomly assigned to be policed using a community-based style experienced decreases in fear of crime compared to areas that were not).
The research designs of studies that have evaluated the effectiveness of community policing initiatives vary quite noticeably, as evidenced in the following section. The strength of scientific evidence of each study examined henceforth is categorized, with each study being assigned a specific value that corresponds to the above scale. For instance, studies that utilized basic correlations between community policing and fear of crime at one point in time are assigned a value of ‘1’, which reflects the weak inferences and the inability of the design to establish temporal ordering and rule out many internal validity threats (e.g., selection bias, history). On the other hand, studies that employed experimental designs with randomization and control conditions are rated as a ‘5’, reflecting a more rigorous research design that is better able to control for extraneous influences on the outcome. Such designs, as depicted in the literature (see, for instance, Sherman et al., [39]), are considered the gold standard of evaluation design.
Findings
This section reviews the extant evaluation research evidence on community policing. Included in this review are studies, of all which have met the specified criteria for inclusion, that have examined the impact of community policing programs and initiatives on various direct outcome measures, including fear of crime, police legitimacy, attitudes towards community policing and job satisfaction, and crime. An extensive review of the extant evaluation research yielded 27 studies being identified, covering nearly three decades of published research in professional criminal justice journals and scholarly reports. These studies are reviewed, with consideration given to the methodological rigor of, and the results that emerged from, each study. In particular, studies are evaluated, with use of the Maryland Scientific Methods Scale (SMS), in terms of strength of evidence and internal validity. Subsequent discussion is presented and tailored to each outcome measure to draw conclusions based on community policing effectiveness.
Selection of eligible studies
The combined search strategies utilized in this review generated a plethora of abstracts and citations on the topic of community policing. These items were carefully screened to identify relevant community policing studies that met the inclusion criteria. In particular, the search strategies generated 8000 distinct abstracts, of which 1500 abstracts were selected for further review. Upon this initial review, a total of 275 potentially eligible studies were identified. Twenty-seven studies, which contained 70 independent comparisons, met the eligibility criteria outlined in the previous section and were thus included in this study. The majority of these comparisons were drawn from studies that were conducted in the United States, with many of them published as a technical or governmental report.
Table A1, included as Appendix 1, provides an overview of the research methodology, key findings, and assigned scientific rating score from each of the studies reviewed herein. This table includes five columns or categories. The first category includes the author(s) and year of each study, listed in chronological order by publication date. The second category depicts the outcome measures used in each study. For most studies, numerous measures were used, such as fear of crime, police perceptions, and satisfaction. The third column illustrates the methods employed in each study to examine community policing effectiveness. The findings of each study are reflected in the fourth column. Here, the impact of community policing strategies on the identified outcome measures is identified. The last category displays the assessed strength of the evidence, using the Scientific Methods Scale, where each study is assigned a numeric value that ranges from 1 (weakest) to 5 (strongest) on internal validity. The next section presents the results, specific to each community policing outcome measure, of this review.
Narrative review
Fear of crime
Reducing fear of crime has become a legitimate focus for police departments, especially those that operate under a community policing philosophy. It can be argued, especially in recent years, that fear of crime has become as (if not more) important of a police and policy consideration than crime itself (Greer & Reiner, [16]). This is understandable, particularly given the adverse, potentially long-term consequences associated with heightened levels of fear (Scheider, Rowell, & Bezdikian, [35]). For instance, a person’s psychological and social well-being can become adversely affected to the point where they may become withdrawn from others and public life in general. Fear of crime can also undermine formal and informal efforts to control crime and delinquency, thereby leading to greater levels of social disorder and a sense of distrust for authority figures, especially the police (Skogan, [42]). This, in turn, can lead to heightened amounts of antisocial and deviant behavior along with crime and delinquency. It is possible too that people may become even more fearful of crime as a result of such factors (Scheider et al., [35]). To this end, it is clear to see why many community-oriented policing efforts have targeted fear of crime as an outcome measure.
Extant evaluation research reveals mixed results with respect to community policing activities being able to effectively reduce citizen fear of crime. As revealed in Table 1, sixteen comparisons, drawn from 10 studies modest in methodological rigor, included fear of crime as an outcome measure. Community policing activities were associated with a reduction in fear of crime in a little over half (n = 9, 56.3%) of the comparison groups. For instance, Segrave and Collins ([37]), using a quasi-experimental design, evaluated a suburban crime prevention team, a community policing initiative. Results revealed that the initiative reduced fear of crime and enhanced police-community relations. Moreover, using data from the Criminal Victimization and Perception of Community Safety survey, Roh and Oliver ([30]) found that community policing strategies were correlated with fear of crime; this relationship, however, was mediated by resident perceptions of neighborhood disorder and quality of life. Conversely, Gill and colleagues ([12]), through a systematic review, found limited effects of community policing on fear of crime.
Table 1. Community policing outcome measures and comparisons.
Category n (comparison groups) Effective n (%) No change n (%) Not effective n (%)
Fear of crime 16 9 (56.3) 5 (31.2) 2 (12.5)
Citizen satisfaction 18 12 (66.7) 4 (22.2) 2 (11.1)
Police legitimacy 9 7 (77.8) 1 (11.1) 1 (11.1)
Job satisfaction 10 9 (90.0) 0 (0) 1 (10.0)
Official crime 43 8 (18.6) 18 (41.9) 17 (39.5)
Citizen perceptions
The attitudes people have toward the police, and the manner in which they perceive them as a legitimate authority, is critical to the essence and sustainability of any police agency (Crowl, [ 6]). It is, therefore, essential that positive, supportive police-community relations are established and subsequently fostered to the furthest extent possible. This type of relationship can enhance the amount of trust that people have in the police and their satisfaction with the tasks they perform, which in turn can improve quality of life and help alleviate fear of crime concerns. Evidence has shown that people who view the police as a legitimate authority are more likely to obey the law (Mazerolle, Bennett, Antrobus, & Eggins, [23]; Tyler & Huo, [52]), support and cooperate with the police (Murphy, Hinds, & Fleming, [25]; Sunshine & Tyler, [46]), report crime to police officials (Schnebly, [36]), assist with fighting crime (Reisig & Lloyd, [29]; Tyler & Fagan, [51]), and participate in community policing efforts (Reisig, [28]). Accordingly, stemming from these evidentiary considerations, there has been a growing emphasis on, and commitment to, legitimacy and professionalism in the police industry.
As evidenced in the extant literature, the most promising community policing initiatives focus on improving police legitimacy and perceptions among citizens. Several studies, which vary in methodological rigor, reveal that community policing interventions are effective in enhancing the attitudes of citizens toward law enforcement. As illustrated in Table 1, satisfaction with the police was measured in 18 comparisons across eight studies included in this review. Community policing interventions were linked to enhanced positive police perceptions among citizens in 66.7% of the comparisons. For instance, Scheider and colleagues ([35]) found that perceptions of community policing activities was significantly related to satisfaction with the police. Skogan and colleagues ([44]) conducted an evaluation of the CAPS program over five police areas using a time-series analysis. Results revealed that the program was associated with a higher level of satisfaction with the police along with a decline in crime-related problems.
Other studies, modest in scientific rigor, have examined the effect of community policing interventions on police legitimacy. Community policing activities improved police legitimacy in the majority (n = 7, 77.8%) of the nine treatment-control comparisons included in this review (see Table 1). This suggests that citizens regularly conveyed confidence in the police and felt they were treated justly by law enforcement in areas that received community policing. For instance, using six sites pair matched with controls, Tuffin and colleagues ([49]) found that the National Reassurance Policing Program, a community policing initiative, had a positive impact on confidence in the police and feelings of safety along with crime reduction and perceptions of crime. Hawdon and colleagues ([18]) utilized quantitative survey data from 1347 residents in 41 communities in South Carolina to examine whether community policing strategies can improve police legitimacy. Results provided evidence of a strong relationship between community policing strategies and increased citizen perceptions of the legitimacy of the police.
Job satisfaction
Community policing efforts aim to enrich the attachment of police officers to the policing profession as well as to the community in general (Greene, [13]; Rosenberg, Sigler, & Lewis, [33]). An important consideration with regard to community policing effectiveness relates to its acceptance by police personnel. When a move from traditional to community policing is undertaken, for it to be successful, a re-examination of the police mission becomes critical (Ford, Weissbein, & Plamondon, [10]). The shift in focus also becomes important along with the reactions from police personnel. Some personnel may be accepting of community policing and the objectives that exemplify this popular innovation. They also may be supportive of their new role in helping to ensure the proper implementation of community policing interventions. To the contrary, other personnel may exhibit greater receptivity toward traditional policing techniques, thus maintaining values consistent with crime control along with maintaining order to reduce crime and improve overall quality of life (Ford et al., [10]; Greene, [14]). It is, therefore, reasonable to deduce that police personnel who ‘buy into’ community policing will be more likely to embrace the focus of the department and their new role, leading to heightened levels of job satisfaction.
Research has recognized the impact of community policing activities on police perceptions toward job satisfaction and policing behaviors. These studies, which have utilized moderately strong research designs, have produced largely positive results. For this review, ten independent comparisons, drawn from six studies, measured job satisfaction in assessing community policing effectiveness (see Table 1). Community policing activities were associated with higher levels of job satisfaction among officers in 90% of the comparisons. For instance, Pelfrey ([27]) found that community policing officers had significantly higher levels of job satisfaction as well as favorable attitudes towards the community than traditional police officers. Using a time-series analysis to evaluate the COPS AHEAD community policing program, Greene and colleagues ([15]) found that the program lead to higher levels of officer job satisfaction and feelings of safety among citizens. Yates and Pillai ([59]) examined the relationship between community policing attitudes and job satisfaction and whether this relationship was influenced by the elements of strain, frustration, commitment, and support. Results indicated a positive relationship, mediated by job strain, between community policing attitudes and job satisfaction.
Crime reduction
Community policing has become a popular innovation that has served as a driving force behind police efforts designed to maintain order and reduce crime (Zhao, Scheider, & Thurman, [60]). Over the last decade or so, violent crime rates have steadily declined nationwide, leading some citizens to develop and maintain more favorable attitudes toward the police as a result. Recently, however, high-profile events like the shooting of teenager Michael Brown in Ferguson, Missouri have led many citizens to express dissatisfaction with the police and question their ability to effectively maintain order and prevent crime. This has spurred continued discussion about the need for police to establish and maintain positive, meaningful and mutually beneficial relationships with the community in which they serve. In doing so, the assumption is that the police can better maintain social order, address quality of life concerns, including fear of crime, and ultimately reduce crime in the community.
As depicted in Table 1, contrary to the belief that community policing reduces crime, empirical studies have often failed to find a significant, positive effect of community policing on crime reduction. Official crime was measured in 43 of the 70 comparisons, drawn from 12 studies, included in this review. Community policing interventions had no significant effect on crime reduction in the majority (81.4%) of comparisons that measured this outcome. For instance, Weisburd and colleagues ([55]) conducted a methodologically rigorous evaluation of a community policing program using matched pair census blocks. Results revealed no effect of the program on self-reported crime along with perceptions of risk and police legitimacy. Kessler and Duncan ([21]) found that community policing interventions in four neighborhoods in Houston, Texas had no significant, measurable impact on crime. To the contrary, community policing was associated with reductions in crime in less than 20% (n = 8) of the comparisons included in this review. Connell and colleagues ([ 4]), for example, found that property and violent crime significantly reduced in the intervention site that received community policing. Tuffin and colleagues ([49]) also found support for the crime reduction bene
