INT 301 GBC The Effectiveness of Advertising as A Promotional Tool Essay

Library
< Back
Go to v
??
=:
enabling access to the relevant literature.
? Topical debates within your profession
? Examining academic theory in your field
a
1 Step One: Select a Topic
Personal Interest to Formal
Research Topic
Chapter Overview
Exercises
Selecting a suitable interest for research requires great care
and forethought. As the opening quote of this chapter states,
?Hoe in haste, harvest in tears.? A hasty choice can have
catastrophic consequences. Since the subject of study
determines and directs the course of the work, employing good
decision-making skills when making this selection is a must. A
subject for study should ignite curiosity, engage emotions, and
challenge thinking. Choose accordingly.
W
Step 1. Select a Topic
10
Recognizing and defining a subject for study is the first step of
a literature review. Subjects for study in the social sciences
usually originate from the conflicts, issues, concerns, or beliefs
encountered in daily life. We question why some actions in the
course of our work succeed while others fail, why some
strategies or tactics succeed more than others, or why people
think, learn, and act in certain ways. In the social sciences, our
issues or concerns tend to focus on questions about individuals,
groups, or organizations and seek to examine some attitude,
belief, behavior, or task. These questions stem from curiosity.
They stimulate the need to seek answers, to do research. Notice
that when we ask these types of questions, both our emotional
and our intellectual capacities are in play.
Task 1. Identify a Subject for Study
Task 2. Translate the Personal Interest or Concern Into a
Research Query
Activity 1. Focus a Research Interest
Activity 2. Limit the Interest
Activity 3. Select a Perspective
Activity 4. Reflect and Develop the Query Statement
Task 3. Link the Research Query to the Appropriate
Discipline
Activity 1. Become Familiar with the Academic
Terminology Concerning the Study Topic
Activity 2. Gain Entry to the Literature Concerning
the Subject of the Study
Activity 3. Consult With a Research Librarian
Task 4. Write the Preliminary Research Topic Statement
Exercises are found throughout this text to help in the various
tasks of developing a literature review. The first four exercises
in this chapter will employ free writes. A free write is
spontaneous writing done without reference to notes or
outlines. Its purpose is to explore what you have already
internalized about a subject. These exercises will lead you
through the four tasks using free writes; one will appear at the
end of each of this chapter’s subsections. The subject statement
for each exercise is followed by guiding questions to help you
free write. Respond to each question by writing ideas as they
occur to you.
Personal reflection and introspection will uncover potential
interests. Professional and public settings provide the primary
context for this introspection and supply fruitful opportunities
for the discovery of a possible research topic. Examples from
the workplace can identify both interests and concerns. What
causes the conflict among members of committee workgroups?
How accurate are standardized test scores in measuring
individual student achievement? These questions might target
potential subjects for study.
The following guiding questions will help specify your
interests and reveal your personal attachments. These
questions should enable you to pinpoint an interest and
recognize your personal connection with the interest you
wish to study.
Emotions trigger a curiosity that provides the personal energy
and the motivation-the how and why-to act on the question.
Appropriate motivation and energy are a matter of disposition.
How we are disposed will determine the effort and
commitment we put toward our action. As discussed in the
introduction, a proper mindset is crucial to a successful
inquiry.
Organizationally, each of the following questions might
provide a great beginning for topic development. What is the
recipe for creating successful change? Is having a forceful
leader a precondition for a successful group? How does a
school principal guide a teaching staff toward improving
student performance?
Use a separate page for each session. Write the topic and the
questions for that exercise at the head of the paper. Then,
answer each question in descending order. Read the
question aloud and then act quickly, allowing ideas and
written responses to flow. As ideas come to mind, write them
as simple, independent, declarative statements, one after the
other, as quickly as possible. Do not be concerned with
spelling, grammar, or composition.
Chi zappa in fretta, raccoglier? piangendo.
Hoe in haste, harvest in tears.
If introspection about the workplace does not provide an
interest or concern, other sources can be used. Topic
suggestions can come from experts knowledgeable in academic
disciplines or from skilled practitioners in the field. Seek out
those professionals you respect and ask them their thoughts
about potential topics.
Our intellect identifies the subject-the what-of the question
and directs the course of action. The what is defined as our
personal interest or concern. When doing a literature
review, defining and clarifying the subject-the what of the
research is the first order of business. The question that
initially provoked our curiosity must evolve to become a
suitable subject for study.
You are
here.
Perhaps reading various academic and professional trade
journals can provide potential subjects. Journal articles
frequently suggest topics for further research.
1. Select a
Topic
Allow no more than about 15 minutes for each session. If you
have exhausted your responses to the questions before the
end of 15 minutes, wait for about 30 seconds and then push
yourself to find three more responses. After the exercise,
leave the page, without reading it, for about a day. At the
end of the 24-hour period, go back to your writing for that
exercise. Read, review, edit, delete, and add whatever comes
to mind. Follow this pattern for the exercise in each of the
next four subsections.
Addresses
and answers
Specifies
6. Write the
Review
2. Develop
Tools of
Argumentation
Four tasks are required to create the research topic statement.
They are (1) identifying a subject for study, (2) translating this
personal interest or concern into a research query, (3)
connecting the research query to the appropriate academic
discipline, and (4) writing the preliminary topic statement.
These tasks are the subject of this chapter. Figure 1.1 illustrates
Tapping into media and professional association reports
about current issues can also uncover research alternatives.
The current national, state, or local debates and initiatives
concerning our professional field can produce research
interests as well.
Advocates
and defines
Organizes
and forms
Exercise 1.1
this process.
5. Critique the
Literature
3. Search the
Literature
Figure 1.1 The Process of Creating the Research Topic
Statement
Discovering the Subject of Your
Interest or Issue of Concern
Documents
and discovers
4. Survey the
Literature
Explores
and catalogues
Personal
Interest or
Concern
Research
Query
Appropriate
Academic
Discipline
Research
Topic
Statement
1. What is your personal interest or issue?
2. What are the component parts of this interest?
3. Why did you become curious about this question?
Converted
Into
Linked
to
Defines
Finally, we can identify the theoretical debates occurring in a
chosen academic field. Weighing into the debate by applying
applica theory to argue the can very well be a subject
for research. What theories in cognitive psychology speak to the
developmental learning abilities of students? What does
sociological theory predict about group behavior? How does
theory in cultural anthropology provide an understanding of
the culture of the work community? Theoretical models in the
various social sciences can always provide new insights to both
practical and theoretical questions. Potential subjects of study
abound here.
The Literature Review Model
Task 1.
Identifying
a subject for
study
Task 2.
Translating
an interest or
concern into a
researchable query
Task 3.
Connecting
the research query
to the appropriate
academic discipline
Task 4.
Writing
the preliminary
topic statement
Researcher Bias, Note Well
Key Vocabulary
Personal Interest or Concern-The subject or
question that provokes the need to inquire. This should
not be confused with a preliminary topic.
? Research Query-A personal interest or concern that
has been refined by focus, limit, and perspective.
? Preliminary Topic-A research interest statement
that has been defined, limited to one subject of study,
and linked to an appropriate academic discipline,
Task 1. Identifying a Subject for
Study
The following is a list of possible resources to assist in
identifying a subject for study:
Researchers have opinions about the problems in their field
and often have pet viewpoints to which they are committed.
These preconceptions and personal attachments are both
strengths and weaknesses in a research effort. Personal
attachment to an interest provides the passion and dedication
necessary for conducting good research, which is a plus.
However, personal attachment can also carry bias and opinion,
causing researchers to jump to premature conclusions. Rather
Most applied research in the social sciences begins by selecting
an everyday problem, interest, or concern for further study.
? Professional experience
? Suggestions from experts
? Academic journals
16% Page 16 of 172 . Location 740 of 5443
Library
< Back
Go to v
??
ili
than arriving at a conclusion based on methodical scholarly
work, it is easy to succumb to bias. While bias and opinion can
never be removed completely, they must be recognized and
controlled.
placement with regard to Subject A exams?” Or, “How does
teacher competency in test preparation of students affect
student achievement on a standardized test?”
a
statement might be, “To what degree do standardized test
scores predict actual student achievement?? The problem with
this example is its lack of specificity. Given this statement as
presented, could a researcher see and measure the concern? Of
course not. The interest, as expressed, is too broad. Its terms
are not clearly defined.
Exercise 1.3
1. What academic fields best lend themselves to your subject
and perspective for research? (If you are still considering
more than one perspective, choose a suitable academic field
for each perspective.)
2. What are the specific knowledge areas of this academic field
that will best help in exploring and defining the research
subject?
3. What knowledge competency do you have in this academic
field?
4. What additional knowledge of this academic field do you
need to acquire to have a solid foundation to address this
interest?
How does a researcher control bias and opinion? First, careful
introspection can bring these personal views forward, where
they can be identified for what they are. By rationally
identifying and confronting these views, the researcher can
control personal bias and opinion and commit to being open-
minded, skeptical, and considerate of research data. If these
attachments remain embedded and unidentified, the research
can be severely compromised. A researcher hobbled by
unchecked bias can only produce biased findings.
Limiting the Interest of Your Study
The subject of any interest is defined by its key ideas, those
words and phrases creating its meaning. A too-broad interest
statement tends to be ambiguous and wordy, in need of precise
definition. A hazy interest statement may contain assumptions
and inferences that must be clarified. Broad scope and lack of a
clear description of key ideas demand revision to sharpen the
focus necessary to access the literature.
Remember to write your answers in detail so that you end up with
a useful reference page.
1. Clearly identify the subject of the study interest.
you looking at individuals, groups, or organizations?
3. Specifically name the individuals, groups, or organizations
that you plan to study.
2.
Activity 4. Reflection: The Key to
Interest Selection and Developing the
Research Query Statement
Exercise 1.2
The above exercise probably produced many choices for
possible research focuses. The next step is to select one of the
possible subjects for study.
Understanding the Personal
Viewpoint
The key to developing a successful research topic is the ability
to examine the personal interest, concern, or problem to study.
The more clarity and specificity brought to bear in defining the
interest, the easier it is to connect this interest to a researchable
topic of study.
Activity 3. Selecting a Perspective
1. What previous knowledge do you have about your interest?
2. What personal experience do you have that influences you
about this issue or interest?
3. What are your beliefs, biases, and opinions about this interest
or issue?
4. What predisposes you to certain conclusions about the issue
or concern of study?
5. How will you identify and isolate your personal bias, opinion,
feelings, and intuition to preserve a neutral position as a
researcher?
Examine the question about standardized tests scores stated
earlier. What are its key ideas? To identify them, look first for
the subjects, verbs, and objects of the sentence. In this interest
statement, the subject is scores, the verb is predict, and the
object is achievement. These are the key ideas to be examined.
When taking apart this interest statement, it quickly becomes
clear that this subject is too broad. What type of scores? What
content do these test scores assess? What does the verb predict
mean? How can we measure it? What does the object
achievement mean? This interest needs to be more precisely
defined. If the subject statement is ambiguous, the researcher
cannot identify the actual subject of the review. Developing
exact definitions for each of the key ideas that make up the
interest statement brings the statement into focus. Once the
subject is in focus, we need to ensure its topic is limited.
Once the subject focus is selected, choose the perspective or
vantage point-the place from which to view the subject. What
perspective most appropriately fits the query? Choice of
perspective depends on the subject chosen for study and the unit
of analysis from which the researcher has chosen to study it.
What is the unit of analysis? Is this a study of individuals,
groups, or organizations/communities? The unit of analysis is
important because social science theory is divided in this way.
The subject’s unit of analysis must be linked to the appropriate
academic discipline to gain access to the pertinent information
about the subject.
Experience with students choosing interests tells us that
beginning researchers sometimes neglect to take the time
necessary to reflect on what they will actually study. Selecting
an interest of study haphazardly without considering intent,
perspective, or vantage point can produce awkward and
unsatisfactory results. Therefore, taking time to carefully
choose an interest for study is essential for all researchers.
Activity 2. Limiting the Interest
This exercise should have uncovered some caveats.
Preconceived ideas are unavoidable but must not be allowed to
control or influence the research. They can, however, be a point
of entry to the significance-the why-of the research.
The second refinement limits the subject of our interest.
Limiting the interest means narrowing the study to one clearly
defined subject. Does this interest contain multiple subjects for
study? You must choose one subject to study, one that can be
examined clearly.
Task 2. Translating the Personal
Interest or Concern Into a
Research Query
Taking a personal interest and transforming it into a usable
research query is much like setting up a photograph. Compare
selecting a subject for research to photographing a scene.
Imagine yourself standing at Big Rock Campground in Joshua
Tree National Park. Around you are miles of desert with
shifting light and shadow. Perhaps there are also people,
reptiles, plants, or insects in your scene. Do you want a photo of
an ancient juniper tree, or do you want a picture of a family
around a campfire? What is the purpose of the photograph, and
what is your goal? If your goal is to record the entire park
through time, you would have a lifetime’s work. Usually,
though, the intent is not to photograph the entire park or to
study everything about a subject from all perspectives. Instead
it is to select one worthy subject of interest and to do it justice
using your chosen perspective.
To illustrate this point, a researcher might study the communal
behavior of groups and the effects this has on standardized
testing and student achievement. Perhaps the researcher might
address the social interactions that affect student achievement.
If the subject is defined from the individual student’s
perspective, then psychology may provide the best vantage
point. If the subject focuses on a community perspective, then
cultural anthropology may provide the best vantage point. If
the subject is achievement from the perspective of group
reactions and interactions, then sociology may provide the best
vantage point. As with the focus, the researcher must narrow
the perspective. Probably choices surfaced from the previous
exercise. Select the discipline and unit of analysis that present
the best perspective for accessing data about the subject of
study.
After successfully identifying a personal interest or concern as
a subject for study, turn to Task 2.
Broad interests often contain multiple subjects that could be
studied, each of which could provide important contributions.
The trick is to settle on one interest. ?I am interested in why
students are not achieving,” is one such case. This interest could
be studied from an individual, group, or organizational
perspective. For instance, the research perspective could focus
on the student, specifically on individual student behavior,
attitude, skills, or knowledge. How can a change in student
behavior affect performance on an achievement test? How do
student attitudes affect performance in certain achievement
assessments? Alternatively, the research perspective could focus
on group behavior. How does a certain group respond to
certain testing conditions? What are the effects of this kind of
test on group performance? From an organizational viewpoint,
a researcher might ask what effect providing pretest review
time has on individual student achievement scores.
Consider which of these two statements would be easier to
research: ?How does the weather change from season to
season?? Or, ?To what degree is March weather in coastal
northern California influenced by an Arctic flow of air?? The
second statement plainly works better because it provides clear
definition of the subject. A clear definition allows a direct path
to the available literature. Early considerations of a research
interest are often stated too broadly. They lack subject focus,
limitation, and perspective and are, at best, ill defined.
Clearly defined key ideas, a limitation of subject, and the
perspective for study transform a broad personal interest into
an acceptable research query.
For both the photographer and the researcher, an initial
interest in a subject triggers the task. In both cases, we have a
specific image of the outcome that we expect to see. Also in both
cases, that early expectation will, in all likelihood, be different
from what actually results. The selection of the subject of a
photograph is just a starting point. A satisfactory end product
will appear only after much exploration into focus, intent, and
perspective, all of which will change as you delve deeper into
the subject. Perhaps the final photo will be substantially
different from what was originally conceived. In both
photography and research, it is necessary to be willing to see
what actually works and to continue down productive paths
and abandon those paths that meander aimlessly without
Exercise 1.4
Activity 1. Focusing a Research
Interest
After limiting the broad interest, usable topic questions appear,
such as, ?To what degree are state standardized test scores in
language arts predictive of individual student success in college
When asked to select a research interest, most beginning
researchers will provide a generalized statement. One such
Choosing the Perspective for the
Study
19% Page 21 of 172 ? Location 870 of 5443
Library
< Back
Go to v
??
=:
a
leading to satisfactory results. The first photograph may be of
a jagged rock, but the photo you keep may be a close-up of the
quartz fragments in one section of metamorphic stone in that
jagged rock.
refining the personal interest of a study statement into a
suitable topic for formal research. Begin by reviewing your
progress so far.
chosen and become familiar with the terminology that
identifies the potential subject of study. Once functionally
skilled in the appropriate language, a researcher can easily
translate the key ideas that provide subject definition and topic
definition for the subject of study.
relating to the topics of their academic field. They provide a
great head start in determining the boundaries for the
literature search and in creating an overview of the academic
discourse about the subject.
Like a photographer, a researcher must have a subject of
interest that launches the inquiry and must also craft and mold
the result. The researcher follows a path that works to define
the research interest rather than simply adhering to the
original intent. Evidence, whether of the eye or the mind, must
lead the way.
Figure 1.1, introduced earlier in the chapter, provides the four
tasks for creating an acceptable topic for research. Reading
from left to right, notice that in Task 1 we selected an interest
that we identified as a subject for study. We focused the interest
by clarifying and defining its core ideas. We limited the
interest to one subject. Then in Task 2 we chose a perspective-
a link to a specific discipline-to access the pertinent literature.
We created a research query statement. Now it is time to
reword the personal interest statement using the language of
the chosen academic perspective.
Three activities must be accomplished in order to complete
Task 3. They are (1) becoming familiar with the academic
terminology, (2) gaining entry into the discourse about the
intended subject of study, and (3) consulting with a research
librarian (Figure 1.2).
10
Subject-area handbooks can be organized in three ways. First,
handbooks can discuss theory as it evolves. This is done
chronologically. A theory is first discussed, and as it changes,
the commentary evolves. Second, theories can be organized
topically. In this case, you find the research topic that aligns to
your needs and review the section for the appropriate
discussion about that theory. Third, handbooks may be
organized around current discussions in the field. This type of
handbook deals with the hot topics in the academic area and
emerging theoretical considerations.
Exercise 1.5
Figure 1.2 Task 3: Converting the Research Interest Into
a Preliminary Topic Statement
Developing Your Research Query
Statement
Job
Activity 1
Activity 2
When addressing Task 3 of Figure 1.1, we leave personal
understanding and turn our attention to the shared knowledge
about the subject provided by the academic community. To
accomplish this task, align the research interest statement with
the external concern and work of that academic community.
Why is this important? Without aligning the research interest
to the topic of study as addressed by the academic community,
there is no avenue or language to gain access and entry to the
relevant academic body of knowledge.
Purpose
References
Become familiar Subject-area
with the academic thesauri and
terminology
dictionaries
Gain entry into the Subject-area
discourse about encyclopedias
the intended and handbooks
subject of study
Consult with a
research librarian
Library
Access Virtual Library Access
In reference
Either:
stacks, Do a keyword search.
cataloged Query by keyword, by
by academic particular reference type,
discipline or by availability online.
Or:
Query Library A-Z on the
main page of the library
Web site. Reference types
will be in alphabetical order.
This exercise combines and patterns the information gathered
from your free writes. Reflect on and analyze the written
information produced by the earlier exercises and develop a
specific statement of interest. Initially, this statement could be a
single question or the research query statement. Make it clear and
concise. Develop a second statement that defines the significance
of the research. Finally, write a statement that clearly defines the
beliefs, values, biases, and opinions relating to your research and
note how you will accommodate them.
Activity 3
Subject-area encyclopedias also provide great access to the
academic discourse on the subject. Because encyclopedias are
organized in alphabetical order, it is easy to find the theory and
discussion relating to a specific topic. Using the keywords and
terms selected from Activity 1, simply page to the reference
point in the encyclopedia and read on. The encyclopedic entry
will begin with an overview of the subject, followed by a
detailed discussion of relevant theory. Lastly, the entry will list
the relevant contributors and authors for further study.
Job
Purpose
References
Library
Access
Virtual
Library
Access
Using the information you have acquired through your
introspective work in Exercises 1.1 through 1.4, answer the
following three questions:
Some students believe having a well-defined personal interest
statement provides sufficient topic definition to proceed
directly into research. These students then complain that they
searched the Internet, spent hours in the library, and exhausted
the library’s online resources. They worked hard at gathering
information about their topic but could find nothing written on
it. These students were using their everyday vocabulary to
access the specific language, vocabulary, and discourse of a
specialized field.
* The reference texts used in Task 3 are particular to a
specific academic discipline. Thesauri, dictionaries,
encyclopedias, and handbooks are compiled for each
social science discipline. Seek out the appropriate ones. Do
not use generic references for this task.
After consulting the appropriate subject-area encyclopedias
and handbooks, you will have translated the everyday language
of the interest statement into the terminology of an academic
field. You also have an overview of the topic and the relevant
theory and discourse about the topic. Finally, you have built a
beginning list of the theories and contributing authors in order
to begin the literature search. Activity 2 is complete.
1. What is your specific personal interest?
a. The interest, issue, or concern of my research is
(Answer in seven sentences.)
b. Cross out the two least important sentences without
changing the key idea.
c. Cross out any words or phrases that can be removed
without changing the meaning.
d. Reduce your remaining draft to three sentences.
e. Be sure your final three sentences identify the subject
(what you are studying), perspective (how you are
looking at it), and vantage point (which academic field
you are using).
2. What contributions to the field make this research
important?
3. What are your beliefs, values, biases, and opinions about this
interest?
a. How will these beliefs, values, biases, and opinions help
you in conducting your research?
b. How will you prevent the beliefs and biases contained in
your personal viewpoint from affecting the necessary
neutral stance of a researcher?
The reference section of the library provides the necessary tools
to easily complete the jobs of Task 3. Refer to Figure 1.2. For
Activity 1, begin by consulting the subject-area thesauri and
dictionaries to become familiar with the academic terminology
that fits the interest statement. Each of these references has a
particular purpose. Use a subject-area thesaurus to find the
synonyms that link appropriate academic terminology to the
keywords of the interest statement. When using this reference,
you may also find particular words that better define and
narrow the topic of study.
Just a word about where to find these important reference tools
in the library: When going to a university library, find the
reference section or reference stacks. The reference books will
be cataloged by academic discipline. Seek out the appropriate
discipline for your interest and find the references that address
the topic.
Rarely does a researcher stumble onto a unique and previously
unidentified topic of study. Previous work has been done on
almost all of the interests under consideration. So what is the
difficulty? The difficulty is a lack of linkage between the
wording of subject definition and appropriate academic terms
of the academic discipline. Word usage