Issue of Narcotic Drugs in Thailand Qualitative Research Analysis

Drug Use among Juveniles in the Observation,
Protection Centers and Training Schools in Thailand:
An Analysis of Causal Factors
1
Rojana Wirojkul
Mahidol University, Thailand
Abstract
The problem of drugs is considered to be crucial and it has become a significant issue in Thailand. This
study aims to study drug use behavior and causal factors influencing drug use behaviors of children and
juveniles in the Juvenile Observation and Protection Center and the Juvenile Training Schools.
Quantitative research method was adopted for this study. The sample groups were children and juveniles
in the Juvenile Observation and Protection Center and in the Juvenile Training Schools. The results of
the study found that, all causal factors; attitude towards drugs use behavior, perceived behavioral
control, intention to commit to drug use behavior and outweighing factor could explain the variability of
intent at 51% and could also explain the variability of drug use behaviors of children and juvenile at
54%, whereas, independent variables in relation to perceived behavioral control do significantly
influence intent towards drug use behaviors. This study recommends guidelines for executives in planning
a policy for those involved in the implementation of prevention, providing a therapeutic and rehabilitative
solution for children and youths involved with drugs. Eventually, this study will be useful and beneficial
for taking care of children and youths in the future.
________________________________________________________________________
Keywords: Drug Use, Juveniles, Observation, Protection, Training Schools, Thailand.
Introduction
Narcotic drugs are one of the problematic issues of Thailand. The government has considered it
as a national agenda, which was necessary to be addressed. From the current situation, the
number of children and youths who were prosecuted by the Observation and Protection Centers
countrywide from 2009 to 2014 (Information Technology Center, 2015) has been found to be
increasing. Children and juveniles with the charge of illegal drug have been growing every year;
2009 (26.64%), 2010 (33.35%), 2011 (39.50), 2012 (43.10%), and 2013 (42.24%). In 2014,
children and juveniles committing drug offenses were approximately 16,508 cases representing
as 45.18% of all cases in the Observation and Protection Centers countrywide (36,537 cases).
Since 2009 onwards, the charges related to drugs were the highest committed offense. In
addition, the current recidivism rate for drug offences is 47.77% of all recidivism cases over the
country. This information
1
Ph.D. Candidate in Criminology, Criminal Justice Administration and Society, Faculty of Social Sciences and
Humanities, Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom, Thailand. Email: [email protected]
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reflected the severity of narcotic problem, which is noticeably ascending among young children
and juveniles.
This study aims to explore drug use behaviors and study the reasoning factors that may affect
drug related behaviors of children and youths in the Observation and Protection Centers and
Juvenile Training School. However, there were few studies focusing on rational factors of drug
behavior. The author was interested in exploring actual causes of committing drug use behavior
by using related theories on human behavior reasoning, which are widely accepted among
scholars. Since children?s behavior is sophisticated, several theories needs to be integrated
including; Theory of Planned Behavior, Moral Development Theory, and Rational Choice
Theory.
Planned Behavior Theory has been expanded from the theory of reasoned action based on
cognitive-behavior theories. According to Planned Behavior Theory, human?s behavior could be
predicted in several ways (Armitage & Conner, 2001), for example; drug use behavior, smoking
habit, and alcohol consuming behavior. There were three components in this theory, which
altogether predicted human?s intention, which in turn, could predict actual behavior. They are
attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control (Ajzen, 1991). Foreign studies
supported the predictive ability of Planned Behavior Theory on drug use behavior (Bashirian,
Hidarnia, Allahverdipour & Hajizadeh, 2012; Malmberg et al., 2012; Stewart & Moreno, 2013;
Umeh & Patel, 2004; Morrison et al., 2010). In Thailand, Planned Behavior Theory has never
been applied to explain such crime behaviors. However, the theory of reasoned action by Ajzen
and Fishbein (1980) was induced to explore any other crime-related behaviors such as drug use
behavior and smoking behavior.
Kohlberg (1984) believed that the level of moral development was directly associated with social
behavior. Simply put, the level of moral development would change when human?s development
has changed. Several findings focusing on levels of moral development among children and
juveniles with offenses revealed that youth criminals had different levels of moral development
from normal children (Stams et al., 2006; Blasi, 1980) and moral development related with
recidivism (Vugt et al., 2011). This study investigated the group of children in the Observation
and Protection Centers and indicated that moral development might influence offense behavior in
juveniles. Moreover, myriad studies displayed the significant relationship of moral development
and drug use among children and juveniles (Sooksriwong, 2007; Amonin & Donovan, 2006;
Abide, Richards & Ramsay, 2001). The author would like to assume that this theory could
explain the behavior of drug use among children and youths in the Juvenile Observation and
Protection Center and Juvenile Training School.
The Rational Choice Theory essentially based on the belief that crime was the outcome of
rational decision considering pros and cons before committing offence. Crime has been done
under the personal consideration of increasing benefits and decreasing negative consequences
(Cornish & Clarke, 1986). The research in association with juvenile delinquency demonstrating
the decision-making prior to commit crime behavior (Jeffrey & Alex, 2007; Tantiphongwiwat,
2007). Several studies pointed out the importance of an opportunity that alleviated crime
decision (Little & Steinberg, 2006, Suriyamanee et al., 2010). The author expected that this
theory could explain drug use behavior among children and juvenile regarding outweighing
factor.
From the literature review, a research conceptual framework was created showing
factors related to drug use behavior by using related theories on human behavior
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Wirojkul ? Drug Use among Juveniles in the Observation, Protection Centers and Training Schools in
Thailand
reasoning. This conceptual framework applied three theories to explain drug use behavior of
children and juveniles. They were: Planned Behavior Theory, Moral Development Theory, and
Rational Choice Theory. To predict drug use behavior, the Planned Behavior Theory focused on
attitude towards behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control via the intention to
predict the behavior and intention to commit drug use behavior, the Theory of Moral
Development focused on moral reasoning factor, and the Rational Choice Theory focused on
outweighing factor. The hypothesis model (Picture 1) among several variables; attitude towards
drug use behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control, which all indirectly
influenced via intention on drug use behavior, has been applied. Also, intention to commit drug
use behavior, moral reasoning, and outweighing factor directly influenced drug use behavior
among children and juveniles in the Juvenile Observation and Protection Center and Juvenile
Training School as presented below.
Picture 1 Hypothesis Model
The result from this research enabled us to acknowledge factors that could explain the drug
problem among children and youths in the Observation and Protection Centers. The result of this
research could be used as fundamental information to create a suitable model in solving and
rehabilitating children and youths with drug addictive behavior. This program also provided
guidelines for executives in planning and making a policy as well as for those who involved with
the implementation of prevention, building therapeutic factors and rehabilitation for children and
youths with drug problem. Eventually, this research would be useful and beneficial for the
holistic care management on drug related children and youths in the future.
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Methods
Procedures and samples
The sample for this study consisted of 739 male children and juveniles in the Observation and
Protection Centers and Juvenile Training Schools, Department of Juvenile Observation and
Protection under the authorization of Ministry of Justice, Thailand. The inclusive criteria of this
study exploited the multi-stage random sampling method through several steps; 1) cluster
sampling based on the classification of the Office of National Statistics (2010) divided into four
regions (North, South, Central, and North- East), 2) simple random sampling was used. The
samples were calculated on the basis of variable-item ratio by 1:10 with 10% estimated standard
error. The minimum samples were 605 from 8 juvenile observation and protection centers and
Juvenile Training Schools.
Measures
This study was a survey research applying questionnaires to collect all variables. Questionnaires
were used for the data collection. The content of the questionnaire was divided into several parts
in accordance with various variables. Background characteristic section consisted of 4 items,
Drug related behavior consisted of 13 items, Reasoning factors consisted of 23 questions;
attitude, subjective norms, perception on behavior control, and intention to commit drug use
behavior, Moral reasoning questions intended to assess the moral reasoning influencing the
decision of use and not-to-use drug. The questionnaire consisted of 10 questions according to the
Moral Development Theory, Rational pattern of thought consisted of 5 items. Questions were
created to evaluate children and juvenile?s pattern of thought in making a rational decision.
The author has created questionnaires in accordance with the definition and terminology. It
aimed to assess the empirical validity (Face Validity) by distributing the questionnaire to three
qualified experts in order to examine the validity of content, questions, and language use in
consistent to the operational definition. It was later amended prior to implementation (Try Out).
Those items have been amended for a better objectivity and the modified version of
questionnaire has been examined the reliability to identify better Cronbach?s alpha coefficient
(.802). Prior to the hypothesis testing, the author investigated the construct validity by using
confirmatory factor analysis to identify the congruence of construct model and the empirical
evidence.
Data analysis
The collected data from the questionnaire was, in the first place, evaluated for accuracy and data
completeness. It was later coded using SPSS for several statistical analyses; Descriptive statistics
described the background characteristic of samples; such as, frequency, percentage and standard
deviation. Path analysis was also used to test the research hypothesis.
Results
Most participants were 16 to 18 years old (82.3%). Most of them, 62.8% were prosecuted for the
first time. In the closer consideration, children were sent to the Juvenile Observation and
Protection Centers or Juvenile Training Schools at the first time with the percentage of 82.3%.
Drug offence showed the highest rate of 80.9%, 9.2% committed
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Wirojkul ? Drug Use among Juveniles in the Observation, Protection Centers and Training Schools in
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offences against assets, and 6.9 % committed offences against life and body. It displayed that
before juveniles entered to the Juvenile Observation and Protection Center/ Juvenile Training
School, most of them, 40.9% had used drug almost every day. Age of first contact with the drug
use displayed that 71.7% had first contact at age of 13 to 15. First type of drug use (except
cigarettes and alcohol) among children and juveniles were amphetamine (67.5%), marijuana
(20.8%), and mitragyna speciose (4.7%).
Mostly, juveniles had experience in using amphetamine that accounted as 88.9%, 60.5%
experienced marijuana, and 44.7% experienced meth-amphetamine use. It could be seen from the
pattern of drug use that 79.0% used the one type of drug at a time. Time length of drug use,
mostly, 33.2% had used drug for one to three years. 76.9% mostly took drug at a friend?s house,
63.9 % at home, and 39.4% at the hotel. 70.9 % usually took drug at nighttime. People whom
these children usually spent time with while taking drug were outside-of-school or neighborhood
friends (53.5%), 53.7% of all juveniles showed drug rehabilitation experience. Furthermore,
mostly, 77.2% have been involved with drug distributing while; 67.1% used to involve as drug
dealers. While 18.9% had some of their family members related to drug use behavior. Most of
them were brothers/ siblings (10.1).
The results demonstrated that the structure equation model of the study hypothesis (Picture 1)
2
was not congruent with the empirical evidence (c = 669.494, df = 174, p- value = 0.00,
GFI=0.919, CFI =890, SRMR = 0.0688, RMSEA = 0.062), which was not in the acceptable
criteria. This meant that the structure equation of the hypothesis model was not relevant to the
empirical evidence.
The author has modified the structure equation model by considering modification indices and
structure equation modeling adjustment theory in order to identify the causal relationship among
drug use behaviors. Also, the author considered the cut-off point of non-statistical significant at
.05. The adjusted model has been presented in Picture 2.
Picture 2. Adjusted Model
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After adjusting the model as presented in Picture 2, the alternative structure equation model was
congruent with the empirical evidence. Even though p-value was less than .05, other indices
were in the acceptable criteria (c2 = 628.121, df = 173, p-value = 0.00, GFI = 0.925, CFI =
0.900, SRMR = 0.0661, RMSEA = 0.060). It could be concluded that the structure equation
model influencing drug use behavior among children and juveniles in the Juvenile Observation
and Protection/ Juvenile Training School had the acceptable fit.
The test of alternative causal relationship structure and drug use behavior displayed that causal
variables could co-explain the variance of intention at 51% as well as the variance of drug use
behavior among children and juveniles in the Juvenile Observation and Protection/ Juvenile
Training School at 54%.
The result furthermore presented that attitude towards drug use had direct effect on intention to
commit drug use behavior (? = 0.21, p = 0.036). Subjective norms had a direct influence on drug
use behavior in the negative association (? = -0.13, p = 0.002), Perceived behavioral control had
a direct influence on intention to commit drug use behavior (? = 0.53, p = 0.00), Perceived
behavioral control had a direct influence on drug use behavior (? = 0.30, p = 0.00) The result of
the intention to commit drug use behavior displayed that intention directly influenced the
children?s behavior (? = 0.27, p = 0.00) It has been found that moral reasoning had a direct
influence on children?s behavior (? = – 0.14, p = 0.00) Besides, Outweighing factor appeared to
directly influence drug use behavior among children and juveniles in the Juvenile Observation
and Protection Center/ Juvenile Training School (? = 0.27, p = 0.00).
In a nutshell, this study demonstrated that some variables was congruent to the research
hypothesis; attitude towards drug use behavior and perceived behavioral control indirectly
influenced drug use behavior via intention, as well as, intention directly influenced drug use
behavior, and outweighing factor together with perceived behavioral control had a direct impact
on drug use behavior among children and juveniles. However, some variables displayed
incongruent relationship to the research hypothesis; subjective norms directly influenced drug
use behavior without the mediation of intention, as well as, moral reasoning had a direct effect
on drug use behavior mediated by intention to commit drug use behavior.
Drugs use behavior
1. Age of onset of drug use
The study of juveniles? drug use before entering in the Juvenile Observation and Protection
Center and in the Juvenile Training School found that the children and juveniles used drugs for
the first time when they were 13 to 15 years old. Apparently, the youth in these ages were the
main group that involved with drugs use (Kanatho, 2004). The statistical data of youths and
juveniles entering to the Juvenile Observation and Protection Center showed that most of them
have involved with drugs offense since 2009 (Information Technology Center, 2015). This
reflected the widespread of drugs use among adolescents, which was the most important stage
needed to be focused. Also, it was critical to prevent young people at this age from getting
involved with drug use.
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Wirojkul ? Drug Use among Juveniles in the Observation, Protection Centers and Training Schools in
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2. Type of drug use
Mostly, the first type of drug use (except cigarettes and alcohol) was amphetamine. Most
juveniles have experienced amphetamine, marijuana, and mitragyna speciosa, respectively.
Likewise, in 2014, young people used amphetamine the most with the percentage of 60.69
(Information Technology Center, 2015). Amphetamine was an initial drug that could lead to the
use of other types of drugs. Because the amphetamine prevention programs among youths were
not adequately effective, it continued to be commonly used and widespread across the country.
3. Frequency, drug partners, and places for drug use
It has been found that juveniles who used drug almost every their drug partners were friends
outside of school or neighborhood. They often used drugs during the night at a friend’s house.
The result of the study showed that drug could change the juvenile?s life into a critical stage.
While they should study and spend time with their family or develop their potential to be a key
source in developing the country in the near future, they used most of their time with friends and
drugs instead. This finding was consistent with the study of Tripathi et al. (2009). They have
developed a survey tool in positive life assets for youths and juveniles in order to find guidelines
to create an immune against drugs. It was found that most of juveniles in the Juvenile
Observation and Protection Center usually spent their leisure time with friends. After school
session was very important because children and juveniles could use drugs during that time (The
Thai Red cross, 2005). Particularly, children and juveniles who did not live with their parents or
their family could have deviant behaviors at a games cafe, a friend?s house, or a desert area.
Therefore, recreational or amusing activities as well as after school clubs could be very crucial in
creating an alternative space for children and juveniles to participate instead of using drugs or
having other deviant behaviors (Chulalongkorn University Academic Service Center and
Ramjitti Institute, 2007).
4. Experiences in drug distribution
Not only have most of juveniles used drugs, but also most of them have experienced in drugs
dealing, as well as, have been hired to buy drugs from drug dealers or sell to users. Drug trade
could aggravate the existing problems of juvenile?s drug use. This implied that drugs could be
more easily accessed and it became more difficult to quit drugs when juveniles got more
involved with the cycle as they were a drugs dealer themselves. The drugs network, instead of
selling by itself, has lured juveniles to become the drug dealers when governments implemented
strict and serious drugs suppression. This finding was consistent to the study of Kanato et al.
(2002), which found that the drug dealer network intended to use children and juveniles as
mediators.
5. Reasons for drug use
The study was consistent to its hypothesis. When juveniles had positive attitude towards drug
use, realized that drug use behavior was easy, and believed that they could control their own
behavior, they would have the determination, attempt, and plan to commit drug use behavior.
Theoretically, the result from this study supported the Theory of Planned Behavior stating that
the attitude towards behavior and perceived behavioral control could affect behavior through
intention (Ajzen, 1991; 2002).
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The theory of planed behavior based educational program may be effective in prevention of
substance abuse among adolescents (Bashirian et. al., 2013). Therefore, the results of these
studies could be applied to design a substance abuse prevention program for juveniles by
creating new values against drugs. It was important to raise the social awareness of rejecting
drug use behavior.
For perceived behavioral control, it highly influenced the behavior or the intention to commit
drug use behavior more than any other factors, which might be because it was developed from
juveniles? past experience in using drugs. It could be seen that the age of the sample group was
mostly between 16 to 18 years old. Most of them first used drug at the age of 13 to 15. It might
influence the juvenile on supporting or obstructing factors, which could be persuasion from
friends, easy drugs accessibility, and self-control. These findings could be used to design drug
prevention program for juveniles by providing them the knowledge that drug use behavior was
very difficult. Therefore, drug control could be conducted by a policy that limited the
accessibility of drug use among youths. The family also needed to monitor a juvenile?s behavior
in the closer aspect. The community and neighborhood should cooperate to create a drug-free
zone. The children who reached the age of schooling should be studying in the education system.
When they turned to adult, they should be working in their career. On the contrary, juveniles
should have self- efficacy to avoid drug use behavior and self-control to not getting involved
with drugs; this would be the one of the major drug preventions.
In self-efficacy can be increased through performance accomplishments, vicarious experience,
verbal persuasion and positive emotional arousal (Bandura, 1977). In the juveniles, for example,
treatment activities should be designed to fit their individual level of abilities so that it is
achievable. If it is possible, demonstrate to them how to achieve the tasks, and provide
constructive feedback and encouragement to perform the tasks help the youths overcome any
existing self-doubts. These methods help boosting self confidence and in turn resulting
increasing level of self- efficacy.
Multimodal interventions can be designed to enhance good self-control and reduce its impact
(Wills & Dishion, 2004). For example, asking children their ideas on simple matters and
teaching them planning and problem solving help increase their self control. Activities that
address impulsiveness and anger coping such as teaching children how to identify and cope with
anxiety and anger, controlling their impulsiveness, and inviting them to talk about their problems
or challenges that might have come up during the day and discuss how they handled them can
help reduce negative impact of low self control. Self-efficacy and self-control can help children
and youth resist peer pressure to use drugs, it is recommended that the activities implanted in
study courses for children in schools, and encourage teachers and family to enhance the
development of these skills for children and youth both in school and at home settings.
The result showed that factors, which were not consistent to the hypothesis, were subjective
norms and moral reasoning. Subjective norms referred to the perception of one?s important
people and expectation on them to have certain behaviors and the behaviors could have been
achieved. Subjective norms indirectly affected drug use behavior through intention. However,
this study found that subjective norms negatively affected drug use behavior. This indicated that
juveniles with low subjective norms would have higher probability of drug use behavior. This
finding did not support the Theory of Planned Behavior of Ajzen (Ajzen, 1991; 2002). Although
juveniles acknowledged that the most important persons in their life disagreed with their drug
use behavior, they were
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more likely to increase drug use behavior. They might have an internal conflict, wanted to be
free, and were not ready to be responsible for anything. While they did not want to be monitored
or controlled by their parents like they used to, they might feel upset with insufficient attention
from adults. This was a conflict among thoughts, attitudes, and actions. Relationship with peers
could also cause problems and misunderstanding between adults and juveniles. If juveniles had a
good relationship with parents, those conflicts would be milder. However, juveniles tended to
negotiate or test their parents to see their actions (Office of the Narcotics Control Board, 2006).
It was possible that juveniles might have drug use behavior even though their parents would not
agree with their drug use behavior. This was especially when the relationship between juvenile
and parents, the most important persons in a juvenile?s life, did not get along well.
Subjective norms might also have influenced drug use behavior without intention. The juveniles?
important persons in life might also use drugs even they rejected drug use behavior. Still,
juveniles could imitate such behavior without having an intention. The deviant behavior of
family members was considered as a risk factor for children and juveniles. Especially, when
members in family also used substances or drugs such as father or brother might drink alcohol or
smoke cigarettes, juveniles might try to imitate those actions as their family was the closest role
model (The Development of the Practice for Youths in the Justice System Program (2012).
Discussion and Conclusion
The results of this study could be applied to enhance the family?s capacity by promoting family
member as a role model for drugs-free family and upbringing the children into appropriate
development especially in their adolescence in order to bring about drug use problem prevention.
The results of these studies indicated more work need to be done in engaging family to play
more roles in juvenile rehabilitation. The efforts should begin with activities designed to alter
family management practices or to build parenting skills in general through instruction or
training. These activities often teach parents skills for monitoring or supervising their children,
increasing emotional attachments, helping their children succeed in school or otherwise assisting
their children in the development of skills and competencies that will be needed to avoid
substance use (National Research Council, 2001). Moreover, drug education and information for
parents or caregivers reinforces what children are learning about the harmful effects of drugs and
opens opportunities for family discussions about the abuse of legal and illegal substances
(Bauman et al., 2001).
For moral reasoning, according to the hypothesis, it would have a direct influence towards drug
use behavior. Juveniles with high moral reasoning would have low intention to commit drug use
behavior. There were research studies supporting that moral norms directly influenced an
intention (McMillan & Conner, 2003; Manstead, 2000). The results of these studies could be
applied in designing drug use prevention program for juveniles by allowing them to think about
drug use in relation to ethics. If adolescents thought that using drug was immoral, they were less
likely to use drug than those who thought drug use was a personal discretion (Nucci et al., 1991;
Abide et al., 2001; Amonini & Donovan, 2006). This included discussion on issues of moral and
legal issues about substance use to promote the level of moral reasoning in order to prevent drug
use behavior (Amonini &
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Donovan, 2006). The discussion of the group could change the behavior of offenders.
(Claypoole, 2000).
This study was consistent to the theory of rational choice. For outweighing factor, it was in
accordance with the hypothesis as well. It had a direct positive impact on drug use behavior
among children and juveniles in the Juvenile Observation and Protection Center and Juvenile
Training School. Juveniles who outweighed the worthiness or the opportunity of drug use tended
to commit drug use behavior. Cornish and Clarke (1986) talked about the first stage of being
involved with crime (Initial involvement model). An individual would choose to commit crime
to fulfill one?s own need after considering from various options. Decision-making could be
highly influenced by learning and experience in the past. Also, moral principle and selfperspective with regard to experience in crime directly and indirectly played a critical role in
outweighing as well. The study found that 37% of children and juveniles in the Juvenile
Observation and Protection Center and Juvenile Training School had prosecuted more than one
time, aged of 16 to 18, accounted as 82.3%. Most of them first used drug at the age of 13 to 15
years, accounted as 71.7%. Their family members (mostly their older and younger brothers) have
also been using drugs, accounted as 18.9%. Based on this data, juveniles might have learned or
expe