SWK206-HUMAN BEHAVIOR & SOCIAL ENVIRO I  Lesson 15 Disc

Human Behavior and the Social Environment I

Human Behavior and the
Social Environment I

SUSAN TYLER

U N I V E R S I T Y O F A R K A N S A S L I B R A R I E S

F AY E T T E V I L L E , A R

Human Behavior and the Social Environment I by Susan Tyler is licensed under a
Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License,
except where otherwise noted.

All content CC BY-NC-SA unless otherwise noted.

Contents

Introduction 1

Attributions 6

Part I. The Person in Environment

Chapter 1: How We Use Our Expectations 25

Part II. The Biopsychosocial Dimension

Chapter 2: Lifespan Theories 79

Part III. The Sociocultural Dimension

Chapter 3: Theoretical Perspectives 105

Chapter 4: The Elements of Culture 120

Part IV. The Social Change Dimension

Chapter 5: Social Categorization & Stereotyping 161

Chapter 6: In-group Favoritism & Prejudice 191

Chapter 7: Reducing Discrimination 210

Chapter 8: Racial & Ethnic Inequality 233

Part V. Pre-Pregnancy & Prenatal Development

Chapter 9: Heredity, Prenatal Development, &

Birth

Heredity 280

Prenatal Development 291

Birth 320

279

Part VI. Development in Infancy & Toddlerhood

Chapter 10: Physical Development in Infancy &

Toddlerhood

347

Chapter 11: Cognitive Development in Infancy &

Toddlerhood

387

Chapter 12: Psychosocial Development in Infancy

& Toddlerhood

Infant Emotions 429

Forming Attachments 433

425

Part VII. Development in Early Childhood

Chapter 13: Physical Development in Early

Childhood

465

Chapter 14: Cognitive Development in Early

Childhood

502

Chapter 15: Psychosocial Development in Early

Childhood

551

Part VIII. Development in Middle Childhood

Chapter 16: Physical Development in Middle

Childhood

603

Chapter 17: Cognitive Development in Middle

Childhood

630

Chapter 18: Psychosocial Development in Middle

Childhood

690

Part IX. Development in Adolescence

Chapter 19: Physical Development in Adolescence 733

Chapter 20: Cognitive Development in

Adolescence

763

Chapter 21: Psychosocial Development in

Adolescence

786

Part X. Development in Early Adulthood

Chapter 22: Physical Development in Early

Adulthood

815

Chapter 23: Cognitive Development in Early

Adulthood

861

Chapter 24: Psychosocial Development in Early

Adulthood

897

Part XI. Development in Middle Adulthood

Chapter 25: Physical Development in Middle

Adulthood

959

Chapter 26: Cognitive Development in Middle

Adulthood

1023

Chapter 27: Psychosocial Development in Middle

Adulthood

1064

Part XII. Development in Late Adulthood

Chapter 28: Physical Development in Late

Adulthood

1135

Chapter 29: Cognitive Development in Late

Adulthood

1197

Chapter 30: Psychosocial Development in Late

Adulthood

1245

Additional Resources 1299

Adopt this book! 1302

Why do people do the things they do?

That’s what we are here to find out – Human Behavior and the
Social Environment (HBSE) – How do they connect? How does it
shape us? Why do we think and feel the way we do?

This will be explored throughout this course by examining human

behavior throughout life stage developments and our interactions

with the social environment. This course will explore theoretical

perspectives in Social Work to help provide a foundation for

organizing thoughts about client needs and issues they are seeking

supports for. Theories will then be connected to important

developmental, social, and cultural issues that present throughout

each stage of life to create an overall picture of a client’s experience

and how we can use this information to have a better understanding

of how people we work with are influenced and why. Knowledge of

typical development in each stage of life will also inform the Social

Worker if any other supports, resources, or services may be needed.

“Social workers are knowledgeable about human

behavior across the life course; the range of social

systems in which people live; and the ways social

systems promote or deter people in maintaining or

achieving health and well-being. Social workers apply

theories and knowledge from the liberal arts to

understand biology, social, cultural, psychological and

spiritual development.” – CSWE (2008, p.6)

There is no single definition for HBSE. I encourage you to think

Introduction | 1

about what it means to you. In Social Work, rarely do we work with

people whose problems are straightforward. Typically we encounter

problems that are complex and interconnected on several levels

and require looking at the relationships between behaviors and

environments. We like to explore as much as possible in Social

Work and use of theories within various dimensions (biological,

psychological, social, and spiritual) allows us to have a broader

knowledge base in several different areas to have a better

understanding and ability to “put it all together” to assess and

intervene with client concerns.

We will utilize vignettes to work in connecting each theory,

approach, perspective, and life stage of development throughout

this course. Each section will begin with a vignette that will be

incorporated throughout to demonstrate examples of each concept

(that is not covered in your readings). Life stage development

vignettes will be used as an “unfolding case” to allow you to work in

critical thinking of how the theories, approaches, and perspectives

connect throughout each life stage.

Social Work Values:

Service – engage in this by helping people address
and hopefully resolve their problems/concerns – also

engage in service through volunteering time to

organizations within the community (boards, mentoring

programs, etc).

Social Justice – advocate and fight against social
injustices for individuals/groups – generally focusing in

areas of poverty, discrimination, education,

unemployment, etc.

2 | Introduction

Integrity – We must always work to be trustworthy,
honest, and responsible in our work and with our

clients.

Competence – always strive to improve our
knowledge and expertise through continuous learning

and education.

Human relationships – connect as partners
throughout the process – also work to improve

relationships within the client’s system to help improve

overall functioning through increased connections/

supports.

Dignity – value and respect each person we meet and
engage with compassion and respect.

Critical Thinking Skills:

What is it?

• Reasoning – interest in the unknown – what’s
going?

• Evaluating – challenging appearances – what do
you think you see vs what you actually see?

• Problem-solving/decision making – explore all
sides and determine the best decision.

Introduction | 3

• Analyzing – how do they connect? What does it
all mean? How does it all add up? Best decision?

Time for reflection.

Why is this important?

1. Theories, approaches, and perspectives help lay the foundation

for any realistic and rational practice in any field. Our

professional values lay the foundation on which social work’s

mission is based. They help guide us in decision making as they

are directed towards a specific purpose and help us to grow

and develop.

2. Justification for your decisions – we must use critical thinking

skills to explore and process how decisions may impact our

clients and we must be able to discuss how our decisions were

determined.

About the Author:

Susan Tyler, MSW, LCSW – Clinical Assistant Professor, University

of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR

Professor Tyler has been teaching at the School of Social Work

since Spring 2018. Before joining the School of Social Work, she

worked in a community based mental health agency for over 10

years with a focus in Infant and Early Childhood Mental Health

and School-Based Mental Health services revolving around issues

4 | Introduction

related to trauma, abuse, attachment, anxiety, depression, domestic

violence, foster care, adjustments, disruptive behaviors, and ADHD,

through use of play therapy techniques and dyadic interventions.

“Be the change you wish to see in the world” – Mahatma Gandhi
“You can do it” – Rob Schneider

References:

CSWE Commission on Accreditation. (2008). EPAS Handbook.

Council on Social Work Education.

Introduction | 5

Attributions

The Meaning Behind This Book

I began my career in Social Work working in the mental health field

with a focus in Infant and Early Childhood Mental Health. I realized

during this time just how much a person’s experiences and their

environments impacted all aspects of their lives, including why they

made the choices or responded the way they did. After a little over

a decade of mental health work, I had an opportunity to make a

change in my career and joined the world of academia. During my

first semester teaching, I became aware of the Open Educational

Resources at our university and immediately thought of the benefits

of transitioning this course with providing a free, online accessible

textbook that would support both students and instructors alike

in exploring human behavior, social environment, and life stage

development. I began working with the University library system to

compile different chapters from different open and free textbooks

from other disciplines and then added original content to support

connection to Social Work foundations and practice in the first

four sections, as well as creating vignettes to use throughout each

section. This text will support the reader with a deeper

understanding of Social Work theories, perspectives, and

approaches, life stage development, and connection of how they are

utilized in organizing, assessing, and planning for client support.

It is my hope you will come away from this course seeing others

through a lens of empathy, compassion, and curiosity, stopping to

ask yourself, “what must they have experienced in their life?” to

gain a better understanding before jumping to conclusions or

assumptions of others.

“We are all unique. Don’t judge, understand instead.” ~ Roy T.
Bennett

6 | Attributions

Human Behavior and the Social Environment I is adapted from

various work produced and distributed under the Creative

Commons License. Below, is the list of all adapted chapters used in

the making of this book.

Cover Image: Image by Gerd Altmann from Pixabay.
Chapter 1: Adapted from Chapter 2.2 from Principles of Social

Psychology by the University of Minnesota under the Creative

Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0

International License, except where otherwise noted.

Chapter 2: Adapted from Chapter 9.2: Lifespan Theories
in OpenStax, Psychology. OpenStax CNX. Oct 2, 2019

http://cnx.org/contents/
[email protected] Download for free
at http://cnx.org/contents/
[email protected]

Chapter 3: Adapted from Theoretical Perspectives by Rice
University under the Creative Commons Attribution-

NonCommercial 4.0 license.

Chapter 4: Adapted from Chapter 3.2 from Sociology by the
University of Minnesota under the Creative Commons Attribution-

NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where

otherwise noted.

Chapter 5: Adapted from Chapter 12.1 from Principles of Social
Psychology by the University of Minnesota under the Creative

Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0

International License, except where otherwise noted.

Chapter 6: Adapted from Chapter 12.2 from Principles of Social
Psychology by the University of Minnesota under the Creative

Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0

International License, except where otherwise noted.

Chapter 7: Adapted from Chapter 12.3 from Principles of Social
Psychology by the University of Minnesota under the Creative

Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0

International License, except where otherwise noted.

Chapter 8: Adapted from Chapter 3.1, 3.2, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, and 3.8

Attributions | 7

from Social Problems by the University of Minnesota under the

Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0

International License, except where otherwise noted.

Chapter 9: Adapted from Chapter 2 from Lifespan Development:
A Psychological Perspective Second Edition by Martha Lally and

Suzanne Valentine-French under the Creative Commons

Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 unported license.

Chapter 10 – 12: Adapted from Chapter 3 from Lifespan
Development: A Psychological Perspective Second Edition by

Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French under the Creative

Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 unported

license.

Chapter 13 – 15: Adapted from Chapter 4 from Lifespan
Development: A Psychological Perspective Second Edition by

Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French under the Creative

Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 unported

license.

Chapter 16 – 18: Adapted from Chapter 5 from Lifespan
Development: A Psychological Perspective Second Edition by

Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French under the Creative

Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 unported

license.

Chapter 19 – 21: Adapted from Chapter 6 from Lifespan
Development: A Psychological Perspective Second Edition by

Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French under the Creative

Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 unported

license.

Chapter 22 – 24: Adapted from Chapter 7 from Lifespan
Development: A Psychological Perspective Second Edition by

Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French under the Creative

Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 unported

license.

Chapter 25 – 27: Adapted from Chapter 8 from Lifespan
Development: A Psychological Perspective Second Edition by

Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French under the Creative

8 | Attributions

Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 unported

license.

Chapter 28 – 30: Adapted from Chapter 9 from Lifespan
Development: A Psychological Perspective Second Edition by

Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French under the Creative

Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 unported

license.

Attributions | 9

PART I

THE PERSON IN
ENVIRONMENT

Learning Objectives:

• Explore the Person in Environment Approach

• Describe the Micro, Mezzo, and Macro

Approach

• Describe the Bio-Psycho-Social-Spiritual

Approach

• Describe Systems Theory

• Describe Ecological Theory

• Describe Ecosystems Theory

• Introduce Strengths Perspective

The Person in Environment | 11

Photo by Christian Erfurt on Unsplash

Vignette

Jason’s parents have been

called by the school social

worker to discuss concerns

related to fighting with a peer

and declining grades. His

parents also report concerns at

home with poor sibling

relationships, anger issues, and

“a bad attitude, always talking

back, never listening or doing

what we ask him to do”. They report a long family history of substance

abuse and mental health issues (anxiety and depression). They report

increased concerns related to this as they recently found marijuana in

Jason’s room. Jason (14 y/o) reports “My parents don’t know what

they’re talking about. My little brother and sister just get me in trouble

because I don’t let them touch my stuff, besides, my parents don’t care,

they don’t listen to me, they just want me to do what they say. And I

don’t see what the big deal is with me smoking a little weed, it helps

me feel better and not be so mad all the time.”

What comes to mind when you hear
Person-In-Environment?

This approach is the concept that people can be heavily influenced

by their environment. It highlights the importance of understanding

an individual and their behavior through their environment. A

person’s environment, along with their experiences, will help shape

the way they view the world, how they think, and why they respond

the way they do. In Social Work, gathering information from our

clients is a foundation piece of the work we do and knowing what

12 | The Person in Environment

information to seek and how to organize it is like gathering pieces

of a puzzle and working to put them together to get the whole

picture (or at least as much of it as we can). This lesson will begin to

introduce some particular approaches, perspectives, and theories

that help build the lens and foundation of the Social Work

profession.

Micro, Mezzo, and Macro

We will first start with the Micro, Mezzo, and Macro Approach. This
is simply looking at levels within a person’s system, which will help

give you some direction in what supports may be needed.

The Micro-level represents individual needs and involves direct
interactions with clients, which is the most common type of social

work. This level explores aspects related to biology, psychological

needs, social (peer) and interpersonal (family) relationships or

supports, and spiritual beliefs.

Jason’s micro level – Biologically no physical health

issues have been reported but some concerns may be

related to how use of marijuana may affect his physical

health. He is an adolescent which means his body

continues to experience hormonal and physical changes.

Family reports history of substance abuse issues as well as

struggles with mental health issues, which may indicate

possible genetic connections to be explored. This may also

be connected to psychological needs as he may be

experiencing anxiety or depressive symptoms or if he

reports use of marijuana as a coping mechanism. He is

The Person in Environment | 13

also reported to present with anger, fighting with his

siblings and struggling with strained family relationships.

This connects us to social aspects, exploring how he

identifies his relationships and supports. No spiritual

beliefs were reported in the vignette but would need to be

explored when meeting with Jason.

The Mezzo-level represents connections or interactions with small
groups, such as family, schools, churches, neighborhoods,

community organizations, and peers/co-workers.

Jason’s mezzo level – Here we would look further into

how his relationships and interactions with various

groups impact him – family, peers, school staff/faculty,

possible spiritual affiliation/church, and any community

groups or organizations he identifies being connected

with.

The Macro-level represents connections to systemic issues within
large systems, such as laws/legislation, policy, healthcare systems,

and international associations. This level also explores ethical

frameworks, historical impacts of group experiences, and how

discrimination and prejudice can impact marginalized populations.

Jason’s macro level – Education/school policies, mental

health policies, healthcare systems, culture and historical

14 | The Person in Environment

impacts of group experiences, drug laws and policies, and

possible discrimination and prejudice impacts need to be

explored.

It is important to remember to explore the interconnectedness and

interactions between what information is presenting on each level

for the person and how this may have an impact on their functioning

and development within their environment.

Bio-Psycho-Social-Spiritual

The Bio-Psycho-Social-Spiritual Approach assesses levels of
functioning within biological, psychological, social, and spiritual

dimensions (and how they are connected) to help understand

human behavior. This approach includes much of the same

information you will find in the Micro level but we are wanting

to take a deeper look at how the individual is functioning in each

dimension as well as how they can impact one another.

The Biological component includes aspects related to overall
health, physical abilities, weight, diet, lifestyle, medication/

substance use, gender, and genetic connections/vulnerabilities.

Jason’s biological aspects – No concerns with overall

physical health, developmental aspects of adolescence

need to be considered, substance use concerns and

impacts, identifies as male, and possible genetic

The Person in Environment | 15

connections/vulnerabilities (substance abuse, anxiety,

depression, or any other family history of concern).

The Psychological component includes aspects related to mental
health, self-esteem, attitudes/beliefs, temperament, coping skills,

emotions, learning, memory, perceptions, and personality.

Jason’s psychological aspects – Anger, substance use

concerns and impacts, possible esteem issues, poor coping

skills and emotional regulation, cognitive development

and any related concerns, personality and temperament

characteristics, and explorations of how he perceives his

world.

The Social component includes aspects related to peer and family
relationships, social supports, cultural traditions, education,

employment/job security, socioeconomic status, and societal

messages.

Jason’s social aspects – Strained family relationships,

school relationships/educational supports, exploration of

socioeconomic impacts, exploration of cultural traditions,

16 | The Person in Environment

and identification/exploration of peer relationships and

supports.

The Spiritual component includes aspects related to spiritual or
religious beliefs, or belief in a “higher being” or higher power they

feel connected to or supported by.

Jason’s spiritual aspects – No spiritual aspects were

reported but we would want to explore what this means

to Jason. Does he identify with a church, religion, or

higher power/being? What does it mean to him? Does it

bring any support and comfort or is it causing increased

stress as he is working to “figure out what it all means”?

Looking at each dimension of the Bio-Psycho-Social-Spiritual

Approach allows you to engage in a more holistic exploration and

assessment of a person as it examines and connects four important

domains of their life.

Systems Theory

Systems Theory states behavior is influenced by a result of factors
that work together as a system and are interconnected – each part

plays an important role in the function of the whole, and the whole

in turn supports and sustains the parts. A person’s family, friends,

school, work, economic class, home environment, and other factors

all influence how a person thinks and acts. A social worker must

The Person in Environment | 17

observe and assess all of the systems a person experiences, as they

contribute to their behavior and well-being, and work to strengthen

those systems as they are connected and influence one another.

This is used to develop a holistic view of individuals within their

environment, which is then used to lead to the most appropriate

practice intervention.

Within Systems Theory we will also explore roles (routine tasks

and behaviors of people within a system). We all have roles and

engage in them whether we recognize it or not. Some examples of

roles are leader, caretaker, parent, child, sibling, enabler, scapegoat,

citizen, spouse, and worker. Many people feel their roles identify

them. This may reinforce behaviors when positive feelings or

experiences are associated with the role(s) or maybe a motivator for

change when the role(s) are connected to more negative feelings or

experiences. Knowing what roles a person is engaged in, and how

they perceive each role, will support your work in understanding

their experiences and what needs are presenting.

Ecological Theory

Ecological Theory focuses on the interaction between the
individual and their environment. It discusses the active

involvement of people with their environments and development as

well as both (environment/development) continuously changing.

“Thoughts become perception, Perception becomes reality. Alter
your thoughts, Alter your reality.” ~ William James

An important reminder of this theory is to remember the

importance of perception – how people perceive or interpret their

environment and experiences influences their overall functioning

or well-being. This is also regardless of how problems or concerns

may appear to the social worker. You will need to explore how the

client views their situation before assuming certain situations are

problematic. We need to try and see it through their eyes and get

18 | The Person in Environment

an understanding of how they were feeling. It is their story and

their reality. In social work practice, this can best be understood by

looking at individuals, families, policies, communities, and cultures

and identifying strengths and weaknesses in the transactional

processes between the systems.

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Model used to
explore Ecosystems Theory:

https://www.slideshare.net/CLMontecarlo/

bronfenbrenner-ecological-theory-54149823

Bronfenbrenner believed an individual’s development was affected

by everything in their surrounding environment and divided the

environment into five different levels: the microsystem, the

mesosystem, the exosystem, the macrosystem, and the

chronosystem.

The microsystem is the system closest to the individual and the
one in which they have direct interactions. Some examples include

home, school, or work. A microsystem typically includes family,

peers, or caregivers. Relationships in a microsystem are bi-

directional, meaning, how you respond and react to the people will

affect their response and reaction to you. This is the most influential

level within the theory.

The mesosystem is where a person’s individual microsystems are
interconnected and influence one another. These interactions have

an indirect impact on the individual, which can be positive or

negative depending on the elements of the system working together

(positive) or working against each other (negative).

The exosystem refers to a setting in which the person is not
an active participant, but still affects them. This includes decisions

The Person in Environment | 19

that affect a person, but they have no decision-making abilities. An

example of this would be a child affected by a parent losing a job.

The macrosystem is the cultural environment in which the
person lives and all other systems that affect them such as economy,

cultural values, and political systems.

The chronosystem encompasses transitions and shifts
throughout a person’s life. It looks at the timing of the event in

relation to a person’s development, such as how death affects

children of different ages. Historical events that occur during a

person’s life are also explored such as the impacts of the September

11th attacks.

Jason’s story – With use of Systems Theory, we will

want to look at aspects of micro, mezzo, and macro levels

as well as bio-psycho-social-spiritual dimensions above

and how they interact and influence one another. Here we

will also explore what roles Jason feels he engages in (son,

brother, student, friend) as well as roles he may not

recognize or identify (leader, caretaker (if he is asked to

help with caring for younger siblings), or role model). We

will also want to explore how Jason perceives each role

(positive or negative) to gain a better understanding of his

experience and work in supporting his needs. With use of

Ecological Theory, we add the addition of looking at how

development and environment continue to grow and

change, and how this continues to impact our clients as

they engage within their systems. Ecosystems Theory

takes from both Systems Theory and Ecological Theory,

combining major tenets from each and providing us the

opportunity to look deeper into the complexity of each

network a client experiences and gain a better

20 | The Person in Environment

understanding of how they interact and impact one

another.

Strengths Perspective

A foundational perspective of Social Work is the Strengths
Perspective. All people have strengths and abilities that allow them
to grow and adapt. This perspective takes the focus off the problem

and allows us to identify ways for clients to use their strengths

in achieving their goals. Clients are seen as the experts of their

experiences. We utilize their insights to explore times of resiliency

and partner with them to identify supports and solutions and help

support their ability to grow. It is also important to remember to

evaluate the environment for possible barriers and impacts while

assessing needs and strengths.

The Person in Environment | 21

A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the

text. You can view it online here: https://uark.pressbooks.pub/

hbse1/?p=3

Jason’s Strengths – Family support, both biological

parents in home and still together, awareness of family

history, school supports, able bodied, no developmental

delays reported (but should be explored if any concerns

connected to this), has found a coping skills (even if it is

not the most appropriate way, he is engaging in some self

regulation work), and was able to engage with the school

Social Worker during their meeting instead of remaining

closed off and refusing to speak.

22 | The Person in Environment

What other strengths can you identify?

How would you work to explore and …

Human Behavior and the Social Environment II

Human Behavior and the
Social Environment II

WHITNEY PAYNE

U N I V E R S I T Y O F A R K A N S A S L I B R A R I E S

F AY E T T E V I L L E , A R

Human Behavior and the Social Environment II by Whitney Payne is licensed under a
Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License,
except where otherwise noted.

Content in his book is adapted was from

• Kennedy, Vera. (2018). Beyond race: cultural influences on

human social life. This work is licensed under a Creative

Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0

International License

• “Beyond Race: Cultural Influences on Human Social Life” by

Vera Kennedy under the license CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.

• Social Problems by University of Minnesota is licensed under

a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike

4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

• Introduction to Women, Gender, Sexuality Studies by Miliann

Kang, Donovan Lessard, Laura Heston, Sonny Nordmarken is

licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0

International License,

• Principles of Social Psychology by University of Minnesota

under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-

ShareAlike 4.0 International License,

• McAdams, D. P. (2019). Self and identity. In R. Biswas-Diener &

E. Diener (Eds), Noba textbook series: Psychology. Champaign,

IL: DEF publishers. Retrieved from http://noba.to/3gsuardw.

Self and Identity by Dan P. McAdams is licensed under

a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike

4.0 International License.

• Immigrant and Refugee Families, 2nd Ed. by Jaime Ballard,

Elizabeth Wieling, Catherine Solheim, and Lekie Dwanyen is

licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-

NonCommercial 4.0 International License, except where

otherwise noted.

Contents

Introduction 1

Attributions 4

Part I. Traditional Paradigms & Dominant

Perspectives on Individuals

Chapter 1: Self and Identity

1.1 Introduction 14

1.2 The Social Actor 15

1.3 The Motivated Agent 19

1.4 The Autobiographical Author 21

1.5 End-of-Chapter Summary 26

1.6 Outside Resources 27

1.7 Discussion Questions 27

13

Chapter 2: Culture and Meaning

2.1 Introduction 33

2.2 Link between Culture and Society 34

2.3 Defining Culture 35

2.4 Cultural Sociology 39

2.5 Theoretical Perspectives on Culture 42

33

Chapter 3: Culture as a Social Construct

3.1 Social Production of Culture 53

3.2 Collective Culture 56

3.3 Cultural Change 69

53

Chapter 4: Cultural Power

4.1 Cultural Hierarchies 72

4.2 Cultural Hegemony 79

4.3 Prejudice and Discrimination 82

72

Chapter 5: Cultural Identity

5.1 Identity Formation 90

5.2 Sex and Gender 94

5.3 Sexuality and Sexual Orientation 99

5.4 Body and Mind 103

5.5 Race and Ethnicity 108

5.6 Religion and Belief Systems 114

5.7 Identity Today 120

90

Chapter 6: The Multicultural World

6.1 Globalization and Identity 133

6.2 Building Cultural Intelligence 138

133

Part II. Alternative Perspectives on Individuals

Chapter 7: Individual and Cultural Differences in

Person Perception

7.1 Introduction 151

7.2 Perceiver Characteristics 152

7.3 Cultural Differences in Person Perception 156

7.4 Attribution Styles and Mental Health 160

7.5 End-of-Chapter Summary 164

151

Chapter 8: Poverty

8.1 Introduction 170

8.2 The Measurement & Extent of Poverty 174

8.3 Who the Poor Are: Social Patterns of Poverty 181

8.4 Explaining Poverty 195

8.5 The Consequences of Poverty 210

8.6 Global Poverty 224

8.7 Reducing Poverty 246

8.8 End-of-Chapter Summary 256

170

Chapter 9: People of Color, White Identity, &

Women

9.1 Introduction to Prejudice, Discrimination, and

Stereotyping

260

9.2 Dimension of Racial and Ethnic Equality 276

9.3 Feminism and Sexism 286

9.4 Reducing Gender Inequality 292

9.5 The Benefits and Costs of Being Male 296

9.6 Masculinities 300

260

Chapter 10: Aging and Ableness

10.1 Aging Social Problems in the News 303

10.2 Age Cohorts 304

10.3 The Concept & Experience of Aging 307

10.4 Perspectives on Aging 309

10.5 Life Expectancy & the Graying of Society 313

10. 6 Biological & Psychological Aspects of Aging 317

10.7 Children and Our Future 319

10.8 Applying Social Research 321

10.9 Problems Facing Older Americans 324

10.10 Lessons from Other Societies 332

10.11 People Making a Difference 340

10.12 Reducing Ageism & Helping Older Americans 344

10.13 End-of-Chapter Summary 348

302

Chapter 11: Sexual Orientation, Sexuality, &

Pornography

11.1 What is Sex, Gender, Sexuality, & Sexual

Orientation?

351

11.2 Sexual Orientation and Inequality 356

11.3 Understanding Sexual Orientation 359

11.4 Public Attitudes About Sexual Orientation 377

11.5 Inequality Based on Sexual Orientation 392

11.6 Improving the Lives of the LGBT Community 419

11.7 Sexual Orientation & Inequality Summary 422

11.8 Pornography 425

351

Part III. Perspectives on Families

Chapter 12: The Family

12.1 Introduction 439

12.2 What is Family? 440

12.3 How Families Develop 444

12.4 Dating, Courtship, and Cohabitation 447

12.5 Family Issues and Considerations 456

12.6 Happy Healthy Families 461

12.7 Additional Resources 462

439

Chapter 13: Relationships & Well-Being

13.1 Introduction 468

13.2 The Importance of Relationships 469

13.3 The Question of Measurement 470

13.4 Presence and Quality of Relationships and

Well-Being

474

13.5 Types of Relationships 479

13.6 Fact or Myth: Are Social Relationships the

Secret to Happiness?

483

13.7 Additional Resources 485

468

Chapter 14: Childhood Experiences & Epigenetics

14.1 Early childhood experience 491

14.2 Parental investment and programming of stress

responses in the offspring

492

14.3 Child nutrition and the epigenome 495

491

Part IV. Perspectives on Groups

Chapter 15: Working Groups: Performance &

Decision Making

15.1 Introduction 505

15.2 Understanding Social Groups 510

15.3 Group Process: the Pluses & Minuses of

Working Together

521

15.4 Improving Group Performance 573

15.5 Thinking Like A Social Psychologist About

Social Groups

590

15.6 End-of-Chapter Summary 592

503

Chapter 16: The Psychology of Groups

16.1 Introduction to the Psychology of Groups 597

16.2 The Psychological Significance of Groups 599

16.3 Motivation and Performance 604

16.4 Making Decisions in Groups 613

16.5 You and Your Groups 619

16.6 Outside Resources 620

16.7 References 622

596

Part V. Stages of Group Development & Group

Think

Chapter 17: Groupthink

17.1 Overview of Groupthink 632

17.2 Additional Resources 634

631

Part VI. Perspectives on Organizations

Chapter 18: Industrial/Organizational Psychology

19.1 What is Industrial and Organizational (I/O)

Psychology?

640

19.2 What Does an I/O Psychologist Do? 644

19.3 Careers in I/O Psychology 647

19.4 History of I/O Psychology 649

19.5 Additional Resources 653

639

Chapter 19: Competition and Cooperation in Our

Social Worlds

19.1 Competition and Cooperation in Our Social

Worlds

657

19.2 Conflict, Cooperation, Morality, and Fairness 662

19.3 How the Social Situation Creates Conflict: The

Role of Social Dilemmas

684

19.4 Strategies for Producing Cooperation 704

19.5 Thinking Like a Social Psychologist About

Cooperation and Competition

721

19.6 End-of-Chapter Summary 722

657

Chapter 20: Group & Organizational Culture

20.1 Introduction 726

20.2 Group Dynamics 727

20.3 Organization 729

20.4 Symbolic Power 730

20.5 Organizational Culture 730

726

Part VII. Perspectives on Communities

Chapter 21: Geographic Region

21.1 Communities Based Upon Geographical Region 738

737

Chapter 22: Population & the Environment

22.1 Introduction 743

22.2 Sociological Perspectives on Population & the

Environment

744

22.3 Population 750

23.4 The Environment 785

22.5 Addressing Population Problems & Improving

the Environment

820

22.6 End-of-Chapter Summary 825

742

Chapter 23: Urban & Rural Problems

23.1 Introduction 829

23.2 A Brief History of Urbanization 831

23.3 Sociological Perspectives on Urbanization 843

23.4 Problems of Urban Life 853

23.5 Problems of Rural Life 880

23.6 Improving Urban & Rural Life 888

23.7 End-of-Chapter Summary 890

829

Part VIII. Communities & Police Relations

Chapter 24: The Criminal Justice System

24.1 Introduction 897

24.2 Police 898

24.3 Criminal Courts 901

24.4 The Problem of Prisons 903

24.5 Focus on the Death Penalty 907

897

Part IX. Global Perspectives & Theories

Chapter 25: Immigration & Immigrant Policy:

Barriers & Opportunities for Families

25.1 Introduction 918

25.2 Immigration Policy 921

25.3 Current Immigration Policy 929

25.4 Opportunities & Barriers for Immigrant

Families

935

25.5 Future Directions 944

25.6 End-of-Chapter Summary 946

27.7 Appendices 956

917

Chapter 26: From There to Here: The Journey of

Refugee Families to the United States

26.1 Introduction 965

26.2 Fleeing Persecution and Separation from

Family

966

26.3 Travel to Temporary Refuge 969

26.4 Family Admittance to the United States 971

26.5 Entering the United States 974

26.6 Future Directions in Policy and Refugee Family

Support

986

26.7 Conclusion 988

26.8 Appendix 995

964

Chapter 27: Human Rights

27.1 Introduction 999

27.2 What are Human Rights? 1001

27.3 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1004

27.4 The Status of Human Rights in the United

States

1006

27.5 Emerging Directions 1021

27.6 End-of-Chapter Summary 1023

998

Chapter 28: Economic Well-Being, Supports &

Barriers

28.1 Introduction 1031

28.2 Employment 1033

28.3 Access to Necessities 1040

28.4 Financial Problems 1052

28.5 Future Directions 1057

28.6 End-of-Chapter Summary 1059

1030

Chapter 29: Mental Health

29.1 Introduction 1070

29.2 Different Shared Experiences 1072

29.3 Mental Health Challenges 1075

29.4 Mental Health Treatments 1086

29.5 Emerging Directions 1092

29.6 End-of-Chapter Summary 1094

1070

Chapter 30: Intimate Partner Violence Among

Immigrants & Refugees

32.1 Introduction 1109

32.2 Defining IPV 1112

32.3 IPV Among Immigrants & Refugees 1115

32.4 Risk & Protective Factors 1116

32.5 Responses to IPV 1119

32.6 Barriers to Help Seeking 1123

32.7 Future Decisions 1134

32.8 Case Study 1135

32.9 End-of-Chapter Summary 1136

1108

Chapter 31: Substance Abuse

33.1 Introduction 1148

33.2 Substance Abuse Prevalence 1151

33.3 Risk Factors 1154

33.4 Family Influences on Substance Abuse 1159

33.5 Theoretical Frameworks 1160

33.6 Policy on Legal Consequences on Substance

Abuse

1165

33.7 Substance Abuse Prevention & Intervention 1166

33.8 End-of-Chapter Summary 1171

1148

Chapter 32: Resilience in Immigrant & Refugee

Families

34.1 Introduction 1185

34.2 Family Motivation: Value of Work & Education 1186

34.3 Family Connectedness & Identity 1194

34.4 Role of Resources in Achieving Aspirations 1202

34.5 Emerging Directions 1208

34.6 End-of-Chapter Summary 1210

1184

Chapter 33: Embracing a New Home:

Resettlement Research & the Family

35.1 Introduction 1222

35.2 Assimilation 1222

35.3 Family Theories: A New Direction for Research

with Resettled Populations

1235

35.4 Critical Theories 1241

35.5 Cultural Values to Consider in Resettlement

Research

1241

35.6 Future Directions 1245

35.7 End-of-Chapter 1246

1221

Part X. Additional Resources

Introduction

The Meaning Behind This Book

In the Fall of 2003, I started my undergraduate career at the

University of Alaska Anchorage. For as long as I could remember I

had wanted to be a veterinarian and had begun my freshman year

as a Pre-vet major. Before long, I came to the startling realization

that biology and chemistry were not a place of academic strength

for me and my hopes of making it through four more years of these

particular types of classes became daunting and perhaps unrealistic.

However, at this same time, I was enrolled in an Introduction to

Social Work and Social Welfare Policy course, and it had become a

respite from the periodic table of elements and algebraic algorithms

that were the cornerstone of my other classes that semester. Before

enrolling in that course, I had no idea that a profession such as

Social Work existed. I had spent most of my life interested in human

behavior and how the environment can influence the way that

people navigate their lives. I had also been enamored by social

justice movements and had started to really recognize how policy

decisions can have collateral consequences on individuals, groups,

and communities. Needless to say, the Introduction to Social Work

course changed the trajectory of my personal and professional life,

and I went on to earn my BSW as well as my MSW.

After I completed graduate school, I began working as a substance

abuse counselor within the prison system in Arkansas, and during

my time there it became even more clear to me how much

individuals are shaped by their environments. An overwhelming

majority of the clients that I worked with had been survivors of

trauma and had been at the mercy of generational cycles of poverty,

abuse, addiction, and criminal justice involvement. These were not

individuals that were making random, bad choices. These were

Introduction | 1

individuals who were facing extreme structural impediments in life

and who were doing the best that they could with the resources

and skills that they had at the time. And, just like that, I finally

understood how multidimensional the treatment needs of

individuals can be and how every person’s story and potential

success is based on our ability, as the clinician, to attend to and

acknowledge the complexity of their lives.

After several years of clinical practice, I made the unexpected

transition to academia and was given the opportunity to teach the

Human Behavior and the Social Environment course. After working

on the curriculum for two semesters, it became clear to me that

students wanted and desired a textbook that was free, easy to

access online, and contained information from a multitude of

disciplines. I was fortunate enough to learn about Open Educational

Resources at our institution and began working with the University

library system to compile several different chapters from several

different open and free textbooks. These materials will help

students and instructors alike explore human behavior and how

it is shaped and impacted by both traditional and non-traditional

paradigms. This text will also support the reader in having a deeper

understanding of how the environment, in all of its complexity, can

affect individuals, families, groups, and communities.

It is my hope that the information contained in this book will

help you, as a future social worker, approach client systems with

empathy, understanding, and a compassionate curiosity that allows

for comprehensive assessment, individualized approaches to

treatment, and continuity of care.

“Social advance depends as much upon the process through which
it is secured as upon the result itself.” –Jane Addams

2 | Introduction

About the Author:

Professor Whitney Payne was the Treatment Coordinator of the

Northwest Arkansas Community Correction Center, a residential

treatment facility that serves 100 non-violent, female offenders who

often struggle with chemical dependency. Professor Payne worked

at NWACCC from June of 2010 August of 2016. Professor Payne

became an adjunct faculty member with the University of Arkansas

School of Social Work in August of 2012 and was hired as a Clinical

Assistant Professor in August of 2016. Professor Payne graduated

with a BSW from the University of Alaska Anchorage in 2008 and

an MSW for the University of Arkansas in 2010. In addition to these

degrees, Professor Payne is a Licensed Clinical Social Worker as well

as a Certified Drug and Alcohol Counselor.

Introduction | 3

Attributions

Human Behavior and the Social Environment II is adapted from

various work produced and distributed under the Creative

Commons License. Below, is the list of all adapted chapters used in

the making of this book.

COVER DESIGN: Image by Gerd Altmann from Pixabay.

CHAPTER 1: Adapted from Self and Identity by Dan P. McAdams
under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-

ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

CHAPTER 2: Adapted from Module 1 from “Beyond Race: Cultural
Influences on Human Social Life” by Vera Kennedy under the license

CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.

CHAPTER 3: Adapted from Module 2 from “Beyond Race: Cultural
Influences on Human Social Life” by Vera Kennedy under the license

CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.

CHAPTER 4: Adapted from Module 3 from “Beyond Race: Cultural
Influences on Human Social Life” by Vera Kennedy under the license

CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.

CHAPTER 5: Adapted from Module 4 from “Beyond Race: Cultural
Influences on Human Social Life” by Vera Kennedy under the license

CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.

CHAPTER 6: Adapted from Module 5 from “Beyond Race: Cultural
Influences on Human Social Life” by Vera Kennedy under the license

CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.

CHAPTER 7: Adapted from Chapter 6.3 from Principles of Social
Psychology by the University of Minnesota under the Creative

4 | Attributions

Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0

International License.

CHAPTER 8: Adapted from Chapter 2 from Social Problems by the
University of Minnesota under the Creative Commons Attribution-

NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where

otherwise noted.

CHAPTER 9: Adapted from Prejudice, Discrimination, and
Stereotyping by Susan T. Fiske under the Creative Commons

Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

Adapted from Chapter 3.2, Social Problems by University of

Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-

NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where

otherwise noted.

Adapted from Chapter 4.2, Social Problems by University of

Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-

NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where

otherwise noted.

Adapted from Chapter 4.6, Social Problems by University of

Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-

NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where

otherwise noted.

Adapted from Chapter 4.5, Social Problems by University of

Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-

NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where

otherwise noted.

Adapted from Unit II, Introduction to Women, Gender, Sexuality

Studies by Miliann Kang, Donovan Lessard, Laura Heston, Sonny

Nordmarken is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0

International License, except where otherwise noted.

CHAPTER 10: Adapted from Chapter 6 from Social Problems by the
University of Minnesota under the Creative Commons Attribution-

NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where

otherwise noted.

Attributions | 5

Adapted from page 37 through 38, Self and Identity by Dan P.

McAdams under the Creative Commons Attribution-

NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

CHAPTER 11: Adapted from Chapter 5 and Chapter 9.5 from Social
Problems by University of Minnesota under the Creative Commons

Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License,

except where otherwise noted.

Adapted from pages 39 through 43 from “Beyond Race: Cultural

Influences on Human Social Life” by Vera Kennedy under the license

CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.

Adapted from The International Encyclopedia of Human Sexuality.

CHAPTER 12: Adapted from The Family by Joel A. Muraco is licensed
under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-

ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

CHAPTER 13: Adapted from Relationships and Well-
being by Kenneth Tan and Louis Tay is licensed under a Creative

Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0

International License.

CHAPTER 14: Adapted from Epigenetics in Psychology by Ian
Weaver under the CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-

ShareAlike license.

CHAPTER 15: Adapted from Chapter 11 from Principles of Social
Psychology by University of Minnesota under the Creative

Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0

International License, except where otherwise noted.

CHAPTERS 16 & 17: Adapted from The Psychology of
Groups by Donelson R. Forsyth under the Creative Commons

Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

CHAPTER 18: Adapted from Industrial/Organizational (I/O)
Psychology by Berrin Erdogan and Talya N. Bauer under the

6 | Attributions

Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0

International License.

CHAPTER 19: Adapted from Chapter 13 from Principles of Social
Psychology by University of Minnesota under the Creative

Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0

International License, except where otherwise noted.

CHAPTER 20: Adapted from pages 17 through 20 from “Beyond
Race: Cultural Influences on Human Social Life” by Vera Kennedy

under the license CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.

CHAPTER 21: Adapted from pages 43 through 44 from “Beyond
Race: Cultural Influences on Human Social Life” by Vera Kennedy

under the license CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.

CHAPTER 22: Adapted from Chapter 15 from Social Problems by the
University of Minnesota under the Creative Commons Attribution-

NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where

otherwise noted.

CHAPTER 23: Adapted from Chapter 14 from Social Problems by the
University of Minnesota under the Creative Commons Attribution-

NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where

otherwise noted.

CHAPTER 24: Adapted from Chapter 8.5 from Social Problems by
the University of Minnesota under the Creative Commons

Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License,

except where otherwise noted.

CHAPTER 25: Adapted from Chapters 1 from Immigrant and Refugee
Families, 2nd Ed. by Jaime Ballard, Elizabeth Wieling, Catherine

Solheim, and Lekie Dwanyen under the Creative Commons

Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License, except

where otherwise noted.

CHAPTER 26: Adapted from Chapters 2 from Immigrant and

Attributions | 7

Refugee Families, 2nd Ed. by Jaime Ballard, Elizabeth Wieling,

Catherine Solheim, and Lekie Dwanyen under the Creative

Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License,

except where otherwise noted.

CHAPTER 27: Adapted from Chapters 3 from Immigrant and
Refugee Families, 2nd Ed. by Jaime Ballard, Elizabeth Wieling,

Catherine Solheim, and Lekie Dwanyen under the Creative

Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License,

except where otherwise noted.

CHAPTER 28: Adapted from Chapters 4 from Immigrant and
Refugee Families, 2nd Ed. by Jaime Ballard, Elizabeth Wieling,

Catherine Solheim, and Lekie Dwanyen under the Creative

Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License,

except where otherwise noted.

CHAPTER 29: Adapted from Chapters 5 from Immigrant and
Refugee Families, 2nd Ed. by Jaime Ballard, Elizabeth Wieling,

Catherine Solheim, and Lekie Dwanyen under the Creative

Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License,

except where otherwise noted.

CHAPTER 30: Adapted from Chapters 6 from Immigrant and
Refugee Families, 2nd Ed. by Jaime Ballard, Elizabeth Wieling,

Catherine Solheim, and Lekie Dwanyen under the Creative

Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License,

except where otherwise noted.

CHAPTER 31: Adapted from Chapters 7 from Immigrant and Refugee
Families, 2nd Ed. by Jaime Ballard, Elizabeth Wieling, Catherine

Solheim, and Lekie Dwanyen under the Creative Commons

Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License, except

where otherwise noted.

CHAPTER 32: Adapted from Chapters 8 from Immigrant and
Refugee Families, 2nd Ed. by Jaime Ballard, Elizabeth Wieling,

8 | Attributions

Catherine Solheim, and Lekie Dwanyen under the Creative

Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License,

except where otherwise noted.

CHAPTER 33: Adapted from Chapters 9 from Immigrant and
Refugee Families, 2nd Ed. by Jaime Ballard, Elizabeth Wieling,

Catherine Solheim, and Lekie Dwanyen under the Creative

Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License,

except where otherwise noted.

Attributions | 9

PART I

TRADITIONAL
PARADIGMS & DOMINANT
PERSPECTIVES ON
INDIVIDUALS

Traditional Paradigms & Dominant
Perspectives on Individuals | 11

Chapter 1: Self and Identity

Learning Objectives

• Explain the basic idea of reflexivity in human

selfhood—how the “I” encounters and makes sense of

itself (the “Me”).

• Describe fundamental distinctions between three

different perspectives on the self: the self as actor,

agent, and author.

• Describe how a sense of self as a social actor

emerges around the age of 2 years and how it

develops going forward.

• Describe the development of the self’s sense of

motivated agency from the emergence of the child’s

theory of mind to the articulation of life goals and

values in adolescence and beyond.

• Define the term narrative identity, and explain what

psychological and cultural functions narrative

identity serves.

For human beings, the self is what happens when “I” encounters

“Me.” The central psychological question of selfhood, then, is this:

How does a person apprehend and understand who he or she is?

Self and Identity | 13

Over the past 100 years, psychologists have approached the study

of self (and the related concept of identity) in many different ways,

but three central metaphors for the self repeatedly emerge. First,

the self may be seen as a social actor, who enacts roles and displays

traits by performing behaviors in the presence of others. Second,

the self is a motivated agent, who acts upon inner desires and

formulates goals, values, and plans to guide behavior in the future.

Third, the self eventually becomes an autobiographical author, too,

who takes stock of life — past, present, and future — to create a story

about who I am, how I came to be, and where my life may be going.

This module briefly reviews central ideas and research findings on

the self as an actor, an agent, and an author, with an emphasis on

how these features of selfhood develop over the human life course.

1.1 Introduction

In the Temple of Apollo at Delphi, the ancient Greeks inscribed the

words: “Know thyself.” For at least 2,500 years, and probably longer,

human beings have pondered the meaning of the ancient aphorism.

Over the past century, psychological scientists have joined the

effort. They have formulated many theories and tested countless

hypotheses that speak to the central question of human selfhood:

How does a person know who he or she is?

The ancient Greeks seemed to realize that the self is inherently

reflexive—it reflects back on itself. In the disarmingly simple idea

made famous by the great psychologist William James (1892/1963),

the self is what happens when “I” reflects back upon “Me.” The self

is both the I and the Me—it is the knower, and it is what the knower

knows when the knower reflects upon itself. When you look back

at yourself, what do you see? When you look inside, what do you

find? Moreover, when you try to change your self in some way, what

is it that you are trying to change? The philosopher Charles Taylor

(1989) describes the self as a reflexive project. In modern life, Taylor

14 | Self and Identity

argues that, we often try to manage, discipline, refine, improve, or

develop the self. We work on our selves, as we might work on any

other interesting project. But what exactly is it that we work on?

Imagine for a moment that you have decided to improve yourself.

You might say, go on a diet to improve your appearance. Or you

might decide to be nicer to your mother, in order to improve that

important social role. Or maybe the problem is at work—you need

to find a better job or go back to school to prepare for a different

career. Perhaps you just need to work harder. Or get organized. Or

recommit yourself to religion. Or maybe the key is to begin thinking

about your whole life story in a completely different way, in a way

that you hope will bring you more happiness, fulfillment, peace, or

excitement.

Although there are many different ways you might reflect upon

and try to improve the self, it turns out that many, if not most,

of them fall roughly into three broad psychological categories

(McAdams & Cox, 2010). The I may encounter the Me as (a) a social

actor, (b) a motivated agent, or (c) an autobiographical author.

1.2 The Social Actor

Shakespeare tapped into a deep truth about human nature when

he famously wrote, “All the world’s a stage, and all the men and

women merely players.” He was wrong about the “merely,” however,

for there is nothing more important for human adaptation than the

manner in which we perform our roles as actors in the everyday

theatre of social life. What Shakespeare may have sensed but could

not have fully understood is that human beings evolved to live in

social groups. Beginning with Darwin (1872/1965) and running

through contemporary conceptions of human evolution, scientists

have portrayed human nature as profoundly social (Wilson, 2012).

For a few million …