University of South Carolina Racial Formation in The United States Paper

African American Historical Context
? The first Africans that we know of who arrived in the continental
United States arrived in Jamestown, Virginia, in 1619, as indentured
servants.
? Slavery was not instituted on a broad scale until 1661 in Virginia (20
years after it had first been incorporated into colonial law in
Massachusetts)
? The permanent enslavement of Africans and African Americans was
the solution to a labor problem.
? The need for labor increased, yet Whites found Indian servitude and slavery
inadequate and the supply of White indentured servants insufficient
African American Historical Context
? The permanent enslavement of Africans and African Americans was
the solution to a labor problem.
? The need for labor increased, yet Whites found Indian servitude and slavery
inadequate and the supply of White indentured servants insufficient
? Historian John Hope Franklin noted the following about Black slaves:
?if they ran away they were easily detected because of their color. If
they proved ungovernable they could be chastised with less qualms
and with greater severity than in the case of whites, because Negroes
represented heathen people who could not claim the immunities
accorded by Christians? (Franklin 1969, p. 72).
African American Historical Context
? Fear grew among Whites about the mixture of races and that the growing
number of Blacks would rebel against the institution of slavery.
? These fears and Whites? distain and contempt for Blacks were codified into law.
? States codified into law the degree of Black ancestry that would qualify someone to be legally
defined as Black and, hence, subject to legal restrictions.
? One-sixteenth in Louisiana and NC (one great-great-grandparent).
? One-eighth (one great-grandparent) in FL, IN, MD, MS, MO, NE, ND, SC, and TN.
? States codified into legal restrictions on marriage partners?anti-miscegenation laws.
? Twenty-nine states maintained laws forbidding interracial marriage between Blacks and Whites for most
of their history.
? Over time, many of these laws were amended to include other racial combinations (e.g., White and
Mongolian in CA; White and American Indian, Asiatic Indian, and Mongolian in GA; White and Chinese or
Japanese in NE; White and Mongolian or Indian in AZ)
? Anti-miscegenation laws were nullified in 1967 with the US Supreme Court case Loving v.
Virginia.
African American Historical Context
? The Black-White dynamic is the most ingrained in the
American political system and is the relationship that has
formed much of our thinking about race in the United
States.
? Issues of race and the complexity of the racial dynamic
extend beyond Black and White, especially today.
? For example, in addition to race, issues of ethnicity also
matter.
? Ethnicity refers to groupings of people on the basis of learned
characteristics, cultural practices, and regional or national origin.
African American Historical Context
? The Constitution did not confront the issue of citizenship directly (despite
frequent use of the term ?citizen?).
? It was assumed that if an individual met the conditions of citizenship
developed by the states, they were entitled to the rights and privileges
extended in the Constitution
? Naturalization Act of 1790 (passed by Congress after the ratification of the
Constitution) was Congress?s first legislative action aimed at determining
the process by which foreigners could be ?admitted to the rights of
citizenship?.
? Granted citizenship to free white aliens who had lived in the US and had shown
good behavior for two years and who expressed an interest in remaining in the US
and took an oath of allegiance
African American Historical Context
Some might argue that the Constitution, as it was framed, only
excluded Blacks who were enslaved from being citizens.
? How would you respond to such a contention? What evidence would
you use?
? Notes on the State of Virginia (1781/1784)?
? Article I, Section 9?mandated a twenty-nine year time period (until 1808)
before Congress could limit the importation of African slaves
? Article IV, Section 2?escaped slaves would not be freed from slavery, but
would be returned to their owners (fugitive slave clause)
African American Historical Context
Some might argue that the Constitution, as it was framed, only
excluded Blacks who were enslaved from being citizens.
? How would you respond to such a contention? What evidence would you
use?
? Three-Fifths Compromise? Article I, Section 2: Representatives and direct Taxes
shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this
Union, according to their respective Numbers, which shall be determined by adding
to the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term
of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons.
? Gave Constitutional sanction to the fact that the United States was composed of some
persons who were free and others who were not.
? Established the principle that a man who lived among slaves had a greater share in the
election of representatives than those who did not.
? It acknowledged slavery and rewarded slave owners.
African American Historical Context
Some might argue that the Constitution, as it was framed, only
excluded Blacks who were enslaved from being citizens.
? How would you respond to such a contention? What evidence would
you use?
? Dred Scott V. Sanford (1857)
? But it is too clear for dispute that the enslaved African race were not intended to be
included, and formed no part of the people who framed and adopted this declaration,
for if the language, as understood in that day, would embrace them, the conduct of the
distinguished men who framed the Declaration of Independence would have been
utterly and flagrantly inconsistent with the principles they asserted, and instead of the
sympathy of mankind to which they so confidently appealed, they would have deserved
and received universal rebuke and reprobation.
African American Historical Context
Some might argue that the Constitution, as it was framed, only
excluded Blacks who were enslaved from being citizens.
? How would you respond to such a contention? What evidence would
you use?
? Dred Scott V. Sanford (1857)
? ?they knew that it would not in any part of the civilized world be supposed to embrace
the negro race, which, by common consent, had been excluded from civilized
Governments and the family of nations, and doomed to slavery.
? The unhappy black race were separated from the white by indelible marks, and laws long
before established, and were never thought of or spoken of except as property, and when
the claims of the owner or the profit of the trader were supposed to need protection.
? The framers of the Constitution believed Black people ?had no rights which the white
man was bound to respect.?
African American Historical Context
? Thirteenth Amendment (1865)
? Fourteenth Amendment (1868)
? Fifteenth Amendment (1870)
African American Historical Context
? Suffrage?who has the right to vote?was not initially addressed in
the Constitution?was left to the states to decide.
? The Constitution did not explicitly prohibit Blacks from voting.
? In in original 13 colonies, voting qualifications varied from colony to colony,
based on criteria like property ownership, status (?freeman?), race (white),
gender (male), age, religion, and length of residence.
? Only South Carolina and Georgia adopted state constitutions that expressly
limited the right to vote to white males.
? Voting restrictions based on race were soon instituted in other states, as the number of
Black slaves increased with the introduction and proliferation of slavery.
African American Historical Context
? Given that the 15th Amendment was ratified in 1870, and expressly
prohibited denying or abridging the right of citizens to vote on the
basis of race, color, or previous condition of servitude, why were
Blacks unable to fully exercise their right to vote?
African American Historical Context
? Given that the 15th Amendment was ratified in 1870, and expressly
prohibited denying or abridging the right of citizens to vote on the
basis of race, color, or previous condition of servitude, why were
Blacks unable to fully exercise their right to vote?
? United States v. Cruikshank (1876)
? United States v. Reese (1876)
? Compromise of 1877 (Hayes? ascent to the presidency)
? By the 1890s, Blacks had been legally (and very effectively) removed
from the electoral process.
? Also, Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) upheld the practice of racial
discrimination
African American Historical Context
? Second Reconstruction (1950s and 1960s)
? First Major Protest Cycle: 1955-1960
? Second Major Protest Cycle:1960-1964
? 1965 and Beyond?
Latino/Latinx
Historical Context
Latino/Latinx Historical Context
? Ethnicity ? grouping of people on the basis of learned
characteristics, cultural practices, and regional or national
origin or ancestry
? Panethnicity ? grouping of people according to certain
learned or cultural characteristics, which transcend regional or
national origin
? Hispanic, Latino, and Latinx are considered ethnicities, not
racial categories.
? Ethnicity and race are interrelated concepts that establish
group boundaries, behaviors, and inter and intra-group
relations.
Latino/Latinx Historical Context
? The terms Latino and Hispanic are frequently used
interchangeably.
? Hispanic is frowned upon by many intellectuals because it is
Eurocentric (literally meaning ?lover of Spain?), which is
inappropriate for the overwhelming majority of Latinos, given
national origins and ancestry.
? Also, Hispanic is a term devised by the US Census Bureau for
classifying individuals and is devoid of any theoretical or political
context.
? Latinx is a newer, gender-neutral panethnic term.
Latino/Latinx Historical Context
? In 1970, the United States Census included a question on Spanishorigin.
? Served as the basis for voting (VRA) and civil rights legislation and
implementation and various service programs targeting Latinos
? Hispanic?the term devised by the US Census Bureau?was still in use
on the 2010 Census (and on the 2020 Census).
? Racial categories used on the 2010 Census (and the 2020 Census):
?
?
?
?
?
?
White
Black or African American
Asian
American Indian or Alaska Native
Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander
Some other race
Latino/Latinx Historical Context
? In the 2010 Census, 36.7% of Latinos chose the ?some other
race? category and 53% identified as white.
? Latinx Americans do not primarily identify themselves as
members of a Hispanic or Latino community.
? Intellectuals prefer the identifiers Latino or Latinx, but few Mexican
Americans, Puerto Ricans, Cuban Americans, or other Latinos selfidentify with the pan-ethnic terms Hispanic, Latino, or Latinx.
? For example, roughly 25% of Latinx Americans have heard of the term ?Latinx?
and only around 3% use this term.
? Most prefer to identify by their family?s country of origin or ancestry?
e.g., Mexican or Mexican American, Puerto Rican, Cuban or Cuban
American, etc.
Latino/Latinx Historical Context
? Exactly who qualifies as Latino is still not entirely clear.
? The term Latino and the parameters that define this term are
a product of individual ancestry and self-identification,
legislation, political institutions (e.g., courts, political parties,
bureaucratic agencies, etc.).
? U.S. Public Law 94-311 (1976) defined Hispanics as U.S. residents
of Mexican, Cuban, Puerto Rican, Central American, South
American and other Spanish-speaking country origins.
? Despite formal definition of Hispanicity, in practice the U.S. Census
Bureau and others rely on self-reports to determine ethnicity.
Latino/Latinx Historical Context
? Given that the ethnic identifier ?Latino? is socially and politically
constructed, and most Latinos tend to identify with their country of
origin, rather than the panethnic term ?Latino?, what is the utility of
examining ?Latino politics? versus examining the politics of individual
Latino ethnic groups?
? Does a Latino community?i.e., connections between persons that
formulate a sense of belonging to a larger whole?really exist?
Latino/Latinx Historical Context
? Bases upon which Latino community is built:
? Community of Interests ? exists via conditions, statuses,
and experiences that Latinos share with members of other
Latino subgroups
? This connection may be due to group members? concentration in
particular industries, residential patterns, political status, and similar
experiences with prejudice and discrimination due to language,
phenotype, and ancestry, among other things.
? Community of Culture ? exists via participation in a
common system of purpose or meaning coupled with
patterns of customary interactions of culture
? E.g., Ancestry, language, religions, familial customs, etc.
Latino/Latinx Historical Context
? Ethnic identity is dynamic and multidimensional and
has symbolic and instrumental functions.
? Panethnicity broadens the size of Latino subgroups, giving
them greater visibility and strength politically.
? Panethnicity also serves as ?political capital? for political
elites.
? Panethnicity can be used strategically?e.g., for political
mobilization (the process by which political candidates,
parties, activist, and other groups try to induce others to
participate in politics)
Latino/Latinx Historical Context
? The largest of the Latino groups are Mexican Americans, Puerto
Ricans, and Cuban Americans.
Latino/Latinx Historical Context
? In 1836, Whites and dissident Mexicans in Texas revolted and seceded from
Mexico, creating the Republic of Texas.
? Hostilities continued until 1846, when the US declared war on Mexico
(Mexican-American War).
? The Treaty of Guadalupe Hildago in 1848 officially ended the war and
Mexico ceded what are now the states of Arizona, New Mexico, California,
Colorado, Texas, Nevada, Utah, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Wyoming to the
United States.
? Mexican citizens living in those areas that were ceded who chose to stay on the land
and live under US rule had one month from the date the treaty took effect to state
their preference either for retaining Mexican citizenship and living under US rule or
for becoming US citizens.
Latino/Latinx Historical Context
? The Treaty supposedly provided Mexicans who decided to become US
citizens with all the rights, protections, and guarantees of citizenship,
but the reality was very different.
? Problems with the citizenship status of Mexicans arose as early as 1849, when
California, in trying to deal with Blacks and Indians who were citizens of
Mexico prior to the treaty and entitle to US citizenship under the treaty,
decided that Mexicans were not citizens of the US and that further action
from Congress was needed to confer citizenship.
? Also, the property rights of Mexicans were unprotected?boards were setup
in areas ceded to the US to determine the validity of Mexican land claims and
routinely resulted in Mexicans losing their land to White newcomers to these
areas.
Latino/Latinx Historical Context
? Spain granted autonomy to the island of Puerto Rico in 1897.
? US troops landed on Puerto Rico in 1898 during the Spanish-American
War.
? The US annexed Puerto Rico in 1899, with the Treaty of Paris, which
ended the Spanish-American War.
? Puerto Rico became an unincorporated US territory in 1900 (via the
Foraker Act) and became a commonwealth of the United States in
1952.
Latino/Latinx Historical Context
? Immediately after the US annexed Puerto Rico, Puerto Ricans were in
a political netherworld?neither US citizens nor citizens of Spain.
? The passage of the Jones Act (1917) granted citizenship to Puerto
Ricans.
? Puerto Ricans residing on the island are subject to the military draft
(when there is one), but do not pay US income taxes and do not
participate fully in federal social service programs.
? Puerto Ricans who live on the mainland are not distinguished from
other US citizens for taxation and government assistance purposes.
Latino/Latinx Historical Context
? US involvement with Cuba can be traced back to the Monroe Doctrine
of 1823.
? Cuba launched a war of independence from Spain in 1895, with the
help of the US.
? Cuba was under US military rule after the Spanish-American War,
after which Cuba achieved its independence from Spain.
? In 1901, Congress passed the Platt Amendment, granting Cuba
conditional independence, with the US reserving the right to
intervene on Cuba?s behalf.
Latino/Latinx Historical Context
? The majority of Cubans arrived in the United States after 1959, though
thousands of Cubans lived in the US as early as the 1870s.
? In 1960, there were approximately 124,500 Cubans living in the US; but 10 years
later, there were approximately 560,000 (slightly more 78% of whom had been born
in Cuba).
? Little is known about the early naturalization of Cubans, but until the 1980s
96% of Cuban immigrants were considered white.
? Hence, it is possible that they were also considered white under the naturalization
acts and thus were eligible for citizenship.
? Cubans entering the US after Castro?s rise to power in 1959 generally
enjoyed a great deal of financial support from the US government and
were encouraged to seek citizenship.
Native American Historical Context
? Marshall Trilogy of Cases?three Supreme Court cases, adjudicated
under Chief Justice John Marshall, that determined the political status
of Native nations, the relationships of these nations with the Unites
States and the individual states, and Native property rights
? Johnson v. M?Intosh (1823)
? Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831)
? Worcester v. Georgia (1832)
? Indian Removal Act (1830)?act of Congress forcing thousands of
Native Americans to move from their land in the southeastern U.S.
? Trail of Tears
Native American Historical Context
? Naturalization Act of 1790?granted citizenship to free white aliens
who had lived in the United States and had shown good behavior for
two years, who expressed the intention of remaining in the U.S., and
who took an oath of allegiance.
? Native American citizenship came in a piecemeal fashion.
? Dawes Act (1887)
? Congress granted citizenship to five civilized tribes in 1901
? Native Americans who served in armed forces in WWI granted citizenship in
1919
? Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 granted citizenship to all American Indian
people
Native American Historical Context
? Federal recognition by the United States of a tribal nation is the
formal diplomatic acknowledgement by the federal government of a
tribe?s legal status as sovereign
? Prior to the 1870s, federal recognition was more informal and used in a
cognitive sense
? During the 1870s, the notion of federal recognition became formal and
jurisdictional
? Recognized tribes have exemption from most state tax laws, enjoy
sovereign immunity, and are not subject to the same constitutional
constraints as are the federal and state governments
Native American Historical Context
? A reservation is an area of land ? whether aboriginal or new ? that
has been reserved for an Indian tribe, band village, or nation.
? The U.S. generally holds the legal title to the reserved territory in trust for the
tribe.
? Reservations have been established by (1) Congressional statue, (2) the
president, via executive order power (president was forbade by Congress
from establishing reservations via executive order in 1919), and (3) the
secretary of the interior via power to establish, expand, or restore
reservations granted under the 1934 Indian Reorganization Act.
? As of 1998 there were 314 reservations and other restricted and trust lands in
the United States located in 31 states. There were also 12 state-established
reservations.
Native American Historical Context
? Trust doctrine (or Trust relationship) ? the unique legal and moral duty of
the national government to assist Indian tribes in the protection of their
lands, resources, and cultural heritage
? The ?trust? is believed to include four components:
? 1) the federal government and its agents pledge to protect tribal property and
sovereignty and would not move for or against tribes without first securing tribal
consent
? 2) the U.S. would act with the utmost integrity in its legal and political commitments
to Indian peoples as outlines in treaties and government policies
? 3) the U.S. would act in a moral manner with regard to tribal rights
? 4) the U.S. would continue to support any additional duties and responsibilities in its
self-assumed role as the Indians? ?protectors?
Native American Historical Context
? The Department of the Interior is the lead trust agent and contains the Bureau of
Indian Affairs (BIA).
? The Department of the Interior leased small allotments of oil, gas, timber,
grazing, and mining interests for a small fee. The income generated is processed
by the BIA, and then deposited in the U.S. Treasury, where checks are then
supposed to be the Indians or tribal nations holding interests in trust resources.
? Indian trust funds have two major components: tribal trust funds (TTF) and
individual Indian money accounts (IIM).
? The federal government has been extremely ambivalent in its history with and
treatment of American Indians.
? On one hand, the federal government claims to support the rights of tribes to be selfdetermined, sovereign entities and affirm their rights as separate nations.
? On the other hand, the federal government has produced myriad laws and policies that have
weakened the sovereignty of American Indian tribes and placed them in an inferior position
vis-?-vis the United States.
PAPER FORMATTING GUIDELINES FOR POLITICAL SCIENCE COURSES
VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY
Your paper should begin with a cover page. Put your name on it, and a title, at least. Number your
pages, (but don?t number the title page), use headings, and perhaps even subheadings. Citations of
articles and books, as well as the list of references at the end of your papers, should adhere to the
format described below.
1. Titles
Title, subtitles, and text subheadings should be chosen for succinctness and interest. Primary (an “A
Head”) and secondary (a “B Head”) text headings in bold print should be left justified. Primary
headings should be typed in capitals; secondary headings should have initial capital letters.
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emphasis added should also be indicated.
3. Citations
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(a) If the author is named in the text, cite by year of publication:
… Emile Durkheim (1966) has suggested…
(b) If the author is not named in the text, cite by last name and year of publication:
Some experts disagree (Zinnes 1979).
(c) If necessary, such as when a source is directly quoted, pagination should follow the year of
publication, separated by a comma:
?All my critics are idiots? (Modelski 1983, 22).
(d) Dual authors should be joined by “and”; multiple authors should be listed in full on first
citation and indicated by ??et al.?? thereafter:
… Other approaches (Snyder and Diesing 1977, 392-97) concede…
… Many assume (George et al. 1971, 71-72) that…
(e) If an author has multiple references for any single publication year, indicate specific works
by use of lower case letters:
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… On the one hand (Lacan 1974a, 45; Derrida 1977b, 22) it is…
(f) Series of references should be enclosed chronologically within parentheses and separated by
semicolons with multiple works in the same year listed alphabetically by author:
… Proponents of the position (George1982; Holsti 1983; Starr 1983) and many…
(g) Citations from electronic sources: Citations for information found on the World Wide Web,
an e-mail message, a listserv message or other electronic forms should follow the common
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click on ?Format,? then ?Paragraph,? ?Special,? and ?Hanging.?)
(a) References to books should list author(s), year, title, place of publication, publisher:
Von Mises, Ludwig. 1983. Nation, State, and Economy: Contributions to Politics and
History of Our Time, translated by Leland B. Yeager. New York: New York University
Press.
Strunk, William, Jr., and E.B. White. 1979. The Elements of Style, 3rd ed. New York:
Macmillan.
(b) References to journal articles should list author(s), year, and title of article, journal name,
volume, issue month or season, and inclusive pages:
Lipset, Seymour M. 1983. ?Radicalism or Reformism: The Sources of Working-class
Politics.? American Political Science Review 77 (March):1-18.References to works in
edited volumes should list author(s), year, essay title, volume title, volume editor(s), place
of publication, publisher, and page numbers:
Weber, Max. 1984. ?Legitimacy, Politics and the States.? In Legitimacy and the State, ed.
W. Connolly, New York: New York University Press, 32-46..
(c) Reference to monographs in a series should list author(s), year, title, series title, place of
publication, and publisher:
Fromkin, Morris S. (1968) The Limits of Recognition. Singer Series on Law and
International Society. New Haven, CT: Sanger.
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(d) References to newspaper and magazine articles should list author(s), date of the article,
title, and magazine or newspaper.
?Authored article:
Wicker, Tom. March 4, 1975. Energy Plan in Sight. New York Times, 23.
?Anonymous author:
?Why Vote at All?? June 20, 1980. Time, 14-15
Use the in-text citation: (Why Vote at All? 1980, 14)
(e) References to English Translations should list author(s), date, title, and translator?s Name
etc. (see example below):
Freud, Sigmund. 1961. ?The Ego and the Id.? In John Strachey, ed. and trans. The Standard
Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud. Vol. 19, London: Hogarth
Press. (Original work published in 1923.)
(f) References to sources in foreign languages should list the translated titles of books and
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Romanized or foreign language words after the first work (except for proper names and for
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(g) References to Government Documents should list “author(s)” and date; title (underlined);
the term, session, a n d place of publication; and publisher:
U.S. Congress. S. House. June 5, 1983. Congr essional Recor d. 98th Cong., 1st sess.
Washington: Government Printing Office.
U.S. Congress. Congress, Senate Committee on Foreign Relations. April 1984. Report on
Covert Aid to Central America. 98th Cong., 2nd sess. Washington: Government Printing
Office.
Reagan, Ronald. 1981. Papers of President Ronald Reagan.
Washington: Government Printing Office.
(i) References for electronic sources:
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name; date of publication or last revision; title of document; title of complete work (if
applicable), underlined; URL, in angle brackets; and date of access, in parentheses:
Central Intelligence Agency. 1999.
Afghanistan/Government. World Fact Book, 1998.
(Accessed February 21, 2007)
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?Email Message: To document an email message, you need to provide the author’s name;
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ALBRIGHT, M. 1999, Jan.5. Statement on Cuba [Personal email].
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Stratfor. , 1999, Jan.29. Thailand/Myanmar. (1999, January 29)
(j) References to television and radio programs should list the station, date, and title of show:
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?National Public Radio. September 10, 1984. All Things Considered.
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PAPER FORMATTING GUIDELINES FOR POLITICAL SCIENCE COURSES
VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY
Your paper should begin with a cover page. Put your name on it, and a title, at least. Number your
pages, (but don?t number the title page), use headings, and perhaps even subheadings. Citations of
articles and books, as well as the list of references at the end of your papers, should adhere to the
format described below.
1. Titles
Title, subtitles, and text subheadings should be chosen for succinctness and interest. Primary (an “A
Head”) and secondary (a “B Head”) text headings in bold print should be left justified. Primary
headings should be typed in capitals; secondary headings should have initial capital letters.
2. Quotations
Quotations must correspond exactly with the original in wording, spelling, and punctuation. Short
quotations within the text should be noted by quotation marks; longer quotations or extracts should
be indented from the left margin and require no quotation marks. Changes and additions to
quotations should be identified by bracketing; ellipses (…) should be used to identify omissions;
emphasis added should also be indicated.
3. Citations
All citations should be specified in the text in the following manner:
(a) If the author is named in the text, cite by year of publication:
… Emile Durkheim (1966) has suggested…
(b) If the author is not named in the text, cite by last name and year of publication:
Some experts disagree (Zin