University of the Cumberlands Business Intelligence Discussion

CHAPTER
11
Group Decision Making,
Collaborative Systems,
and AI Support
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Understand the basic concepts and processes of
group work, communication, and collaboration
■■ Describe how computer systems facilitate team
communication and collaboration in an enterprise
■■ Explain the concepts and importance of the time/
place framework
■■ Explain the underlying principles and capabilities
of groupware, such as group support systems (GSS)
■■ Understand how the Web enables collaborative
computing and group support of virtual meetings
■■
I
Describe collective intelligence and its role in
decision making
■■ Define crowdsourcing and explain how it supports
decision making and problem solving
■■ Describe the role of AI in supporting collaboration,
group work, and decision making
■■ Describe human–machine collaboration
■■ Explain how teams of robots work
■■
n this chapter, we present several topics related to group decision support and collaboration. People work together, and groups (or teams) make many of the complex
decisions in organizations. The increase in organizational decision-making complexity drives the need for meetings and group work. Supporting group work in which team
members may be in different locations and working at different times emphasizes the
important aspects of communications, computer-mediated collaboration, and workplace
methodologies. Group support is a critical aspect of decision support systems (DSS).
Effective computer-supported group support systems have evolved to increase gains and
decrease losses in task performance and underlying processes. New tools and methodology are used to support teamwork. These include collective intelligence, crowdsourcing,
and different types of AI. Finally, human–machine and machine–machine collaboration
610
Chapter 11 • Group Decision Making, Collaborative Systems, and AI Support 611
are increasing the power of collaboration and problem solving. All these are presented in
the following sections:
11.1 Opening Vignette: Hendrick Motorsport Excels with Collaboration
Teams 611
11.2 Making Decisions in Groups: Characteristics, Processes, Benefits,
and Dysfunctions 613
11.3 Supporting Group Work and Team Collaboration with Computerized
Systems 616
11.4 Electronic Support to Group Communication and Collaboration 619
11.5 Direct Computerized Support for Group Decision Making 623
11.6 Collective Intelligence and Collaborative Intelligence 629
11.7 Crowdsourcing as a Method for Decision Support 633
11.8 Artificial Intelligence and Swarm AI Support of Team Collaboration
and Group Decision Making 636
11.9 Human–Machine Collaboration and Teams of Robots 640
11.1 OPENING VIGNETTE: Hendrick Motorsports Excels
with Collaborative Teams
Hendrick Motorsports (HMS) is a leading car racing company (with more than 500 employees)
that competes in the Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series. HMS’s major objective is to win as
many races as possible each year. The company enters four race cars and their teams. HMS
also builds its race cars. This includes building or rebuilding 550 car engines every year. In
this kind of business, teamwork is critical because many different people with different skills
and knowledge and several professional teams contribute to the success of the company.
THE OPERATIONS
HMS is engaged in car races all over the United States during the racing season (38 weeks
a year). The company moves to a different racetrack every week. During the off-season
time (14 weeks), the company analyzes the data obtained, and lessons learned during the
latest racing seasons, and prepares for the following season. The company’s headquarters
contains 19 buildings scattered over 100 acres.
THE PROBLEMS DURING THE RACING SEASON
The company needs to make quick decisions during races—some in real time, sometimes
in a split second. Different team members need to participate, and they are in different
locations. Communication and collaboration are critical.
Car racing is based on teamwork, drivers, engineers, planners, mechanics, and others
who participate. Members must communicate and collaborate to make decisions.
The environment is too noisy to talk during a race. However, team members need to
share data, graphs, and images, and chat quickly. Several decisions need to be made in real
time that will help win races (e.g., how much fuel to add in the next few seconds to a car
in the middle of the race). Team members must communicate and share data, including
visual. It takes about 45–50 seconds for a car to complete a 2.5-mile lap at Daytona 500.
During the race, top engineers need to communicate constantly with the fuelers. Lastminute data are common during the racing session.
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Any knowledge acquired in each lap can be used to improve the next one. In races,
fueling decisions are critical. There are many other decisions to be made during the
racing season. For example, after each race, the company needs to move a large crew
with equipment and supplies from one location to the next (38 different venues). Moves
need to be fast, efficient, and economical. Again, teamwork, as well as coordination, is
needed.
OFF-SEASON PROBLEMS
There are 14 weeks to prepare for the next season. In addition, there is a considerable
amount of data to analyze, simulate, discuss, and manipulate. For this, people need not
only communication and collaboration tools but also analytics of different types.
THE SOLUTION
HMS decided to use Microsoft Teams, which is a chat-based platform, for team workspace
in Microsoft Office 365. This platform is used as a communication hub for team members
at the race tracks and at any other location in the organization.
Microsoft Teams stores data in different formats in its Teams workspace. Therefore,
car crews, engineers, and mechanics can make split-second decisions that may help win
races. This also enables computational analysis in a central place.
Microsoft Teams includes several subprograms and is easily connected to other software in Office 365. Office 365 provides several other tools that increase collaboration
(e.g., SharePoint). For example, in the HSM solution, there is a working link to Excel as well
as to SharePoint. Also, One Note of Teams is used to share meeting notes. Before Teams, the
company used Slack (Section 11.4), but Slack did not provide enough security and functions.
Members need to share and discuss the massive amount of data accumulated during the
racing season. Note that several employees have multiple skills and tasks. The solution included
the creation of a collaboration hub for concurrent projects. Note that each different project may
require different talents and data, depending on the project’s type. Also, the solution involves
other information technology (IT) tools. For example, HMS uses Power BI dashboard to communicate data visually. Some data can be processed as Excel-based spreadsheets.
Microsoft Teams is also available as a mobile app. Each team’s data file is available on
the track at home and even under a car. So, the software package is able to respond to
important situations right away.
The Results
The major results were improved productivity, smoother communication, easier collaboration, and reduction of the need for the time consumed in face-to-face meetings. People can
chat online, seeing their partners without leaving their physical workplace. The company
admits that without Teams, it would not have been able to accomplish its success. Today,
Teams has everything the company needs at its fingertips.
u QUESTIONS FOR THE OPENING VIGNETTE
1. What were the major drivers for the use of Microsoft’s Teams?
2. List some discussions held during the racing season, and how they were supported
by the technology.
3. List decisions held during the off-season, and how they were supported by the
technology.
4. Discuss why Microsoft Teams was selected, and explain how it supports teamwork
group decision making.
5. Trace communication and collaboration within and between groups.
Chapter 11 • Group Decision Making, Collaborative Systems, and AI Support 613
6. Specify the function of Microsoft Teams workspace.
7. Watch the video at youtube.com/watch?time_continue=108&v=xnFdM9IOaTE
and summarize its content.
WHAT WE CAN LEARN FROM THIS VIGNETTE
The first lesson is that many tasks today must be done by collaborating teams in order to
succeed. Second, time is critical; therefore, companies must use technology to speed operations and facilitate communication and collaboration in teamwork. Third, it is possible to
use existing software for support, but it is better to use a major vendor that has additional
products that can supplement the collaboration/communication software. Fourth, chatting can expedite communication, and visual technology support can be useful. Fifth,
team members belong to diverse units and have diverse skills. The software brings them
together. Team members should have clear goals and understand how to achieve them.
Finally, collaboration can be both within and between groups.
Sources: Compiled from Ruiz-Hopper (2016) and Microsoft (2017).
11.2
MAKING DECISIONS IN GROUPS: CHARACTERISTICS,
PROCESS, BENEFITS, AND DYSFUNCTIONS
Managers and other knowledge workers continuously make decisions, design products,
develop policies and strategies, create software systems, and so on. Frequently they do it in
groups. When people work in groups (i.e., teams), they perform group work or teamwork.
Group work refers to work done by two or more people together. One aspect of group
work is group decision making.
Group decision making refers to a situation in which people make decisions
together. Let’s first look at the characteristics of group work.
Characteristics of Group Work
The following are some of the functions and characteristics of group work:
• Group members may be located in different places.
• Group members may work at different times.
• Group members may work for the same organization or different organizations.
• A group can be permanent or temporary.
• A group can be at one managerial level or span several levels.
• A group can create synergy (leading to process and task gains) or result in conflict.
• A group can generate productivity gains and/or losses.
• A group’s task may have to be accomplished very quickly.
• It may be impossible or too expensive for all team members to meet in one place
at the same time, especially when the meeting is called for emergency purposes.
• Some of the groups’ needed data, information, or knowledge may be located in
several sources, some of which may be external to the organization.
• The expertise of a group’s team members may be needed.
• Groups perform many tasks; however, groups of managers and analysts frequently
concentrate on decision making or problem solving.
• The decisions made by a group are easier to implement if supported by all (or at
least most) members.
• Group work has many benefits and, unfortunately, some possible dysfunctions.
• Group behaviors are influenced by several factors and may affect group decisions.
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FIGURE 11.1
1
Preparation, schedule,
agenda
2
Select participants
3
Define the problem
4
Select evaluation
criteria
5
Idea generation,
alternative solution
6
Organize submitted
ideas
7
Idea evaluation,
discussion
8
Select or find idea or
shortlist of ideas
9
Make a choice,
recommendations
10
Plan implementation
11
Implement solutions
The Process of Group Decision Making.
Types of Decisions Made by Groups
Groups are usually involved in two major types of decision making:
1. Making a decision together.
2. Supporting activities or tasks related to the decision-making process. For example,
the group may select criteria for evaluating alternative solutions, prioritizing possible
ones, and helping design strategy to implement them.
Group Decision-Making Process
The process of group decision making is similar to that of the general decision-making
process described in Chapter 1 but it has more steps. Steps of the group decision-making
process are illustrated in Figure 11.1.
Step
Step
Step
Step
Step
Step
Step
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Prepare for meetings regarding the agenda, time, place, participants, and schedule.
Determine the topic of the meeting (e.g., problem definition).
Select participants for the meeting.
Select criteria for evaluating the alternatives and the selected solution.
Generate alternative ideas (brainstorm).
Organize the ideas generated into similar groups.
Evaluate the ideas, discuss, and brainstorm.
Chapter 11 • Group Decision Making, Collaborative Systems, and AI Support 615
Step 8.
Step 9.
Step 10.
Step 11.
Select a short list (finalists).
Select a recommended solution.
Plan implementation of the solution.
Implement the solution.
The process is shown as sequential, but as shown in Figure 11.1, some loops are possible.
Also, if no solution is found, the process may start again.
GROUP DECISION FACTS When a group is going through the steps shown in Figure 11.1,
the following is usually true:
• The decisions made need to be implemented.
• Group members are typically of equal or nearly equal status.
• The outcome of a meeting depends partly on the knowledge, opinions, and judgments of its participants and the support they give to the outcome.
• The outcome of a meeting depends on the composition of the group and on the
decision-making process it uses.
• Group members settle differences of opinions either by the ranking person present
or through negotiations or arbitration.
• The members of a group can be in one place, meeting face-to-face, or they can be
a virtual team, in which case they are in different places meeting electronically.
They can also meet at different times.
Benefits and Limitations of Group Work
Some people endure meetings (the most common form of group work) as a necessity; others find meetings to be a waste of time. Many things can go wrong in a meeting. Participants
may not clearly understand its purpose, may lack focus, or may have hidden agendas. Many
participants may be afraid to speak up, or a few may dominate the discussions. Misunderstandings occur because of different interpretations of language, gestures, or expression.
Technology Insight 11.1 provides a list of factors that can hinder the effectiveness of a
manually managed meeting. Besides being challenging, teamwork is also expensive. A
meeting of several top managers or executives can cost thousands of dollars.
Group work may have potential benefits (process gains) or drawbacks (process
losses). Process gains are the benefits of working in groups. The unfortunate dysfunctions that may occur when people work in groups are called process losses. Examples
of each are listed in Technology Insight 11.1.
TECHNOLOGY INSIGHT 11.1
in Groups
Benefits and Dysfunctions of Working
The following are the possible major benefits and dysfunctions of group works.
Benefits of Working in Groups (Process Gains)
Dysfunctions of Face-to-Face Group Process
(Process Losses)
• It provides learning. Groups are better than
individuals at understanding problems. They can
teach each other.
• Social pressures of conformity may result in
groupthink (i.e., people begin to think alike
and not tolerate new ideas; they yield to
conformance pressure).
• People readily take ownership of problems and
their solutions.
• It is a time-consuming, slow process.
• Some relevant information could be missing.
• Group members have their egos embedded in
the final decision, so they are committed it.
• A meeting can lack coordination, have a poor
agenda, or be poorly planned.
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Dysfunctions of Face-to-Face Group Process
(Process Losses)
Benefits of Working in Groups (Process Gains)
• Groups are better than individuals at catching
errors.
• A meeting may be dominated by time, topic,
opinion of one or a few individuals, or fear of
contributing because of the possibility of conflicts.
• A group has more information and knowledge
• Some group members can tend to influence
than any one member does. Members can combine
the agenda while some try to rely on others
their knowledge to create new knowledge. More
to do most of the work (free riding). The
and more creative alternatives for problem solving
group may ignore good solutions, have poorly
can be generated, and better solutions can be
defined goals, or be composed of the wrong
derived (e.g., through brainstorming).
participants.
• A group may produce synergy during problem
solving, therefore the effectiveness and/or quality
of group work can be greater than the sum of
what individual members produce.
• Some members may be afraid to speak up.
• The group may be unable to reach consensus.
• The group may lack focus.
• Working in a group may stimulate the creativity
of the participants and the process.
• There can be a tendency to produce poorquality compromises.
• Working together could allow a group to have
better and more precise communication.
• There is often nonproductive time (e.g.,
socializing, preparing, waiting for latecomers).
• Risk propensity is balanced. Groups moderate
high-risk takers and encourage conservatives.
• There can be a tendency to repeat what
has already been said (because of failure to
remember or process).
• Meeting costs can be high (e.g., travel,
participation time spent).
• There can be incomplete or inappropriate use
of information.
• There can be too much information
(i.e., information overload).
• There can be incomplete or incorrect task analysis.
• There can be inappropriate or incomplete
representation in the group.
• There can be attention or concentration blockage.
u SECTION 11.2 REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Define group work.
List five characteristics of group work.
Describe the steps of group decision making.
List the major activities that occur in group work.
List and discuss five benefits of group work.
List and discuss five dysfunctions of group-made decisions.
11.3
SUPPORTING GROUP WORK AND TEAM COLLABORATION
WITH COMPUTERIZED SYSTEMS
When people work in teams, especially when the members are in different locations and
may work at different times, they need to communicate, collaborate, and access a diverse
set of information sources in multiple formats. This makes meetings, especially virtual ones,
complex with an increased chance for process losses. Therefore, it is important to follow
certain processes and procedures for conducting meetings.
Group work may require different levels of coordination. Sometimes a group operates at the individual work level with members making individual efforts that require
Chapter 11 • Group Decision Making, Collaborative Systems, and AI Support 617
no coordination. As with a team of sprinters representing a country participating in a
100-meter dash, group productivity is simply the best of the individual results. At other
times, group members may interact in coordination. At this level, as with a team in a relay
race, the work requires careful coordination between otherwise independent individual
efforts. Sometimes a team may operate at the concerted work level. As in a rowing race,
teams working at this level must make a continuous concerted effort to be successful.
Different mechanisms support group work at different levels of coordination.
Most organizations, small and large, use some computer-based communication and
collaboration methods and tools to support people working in teams or groups. From
e-mails to mobile phones and Short Message Service (SMS), as well as conferencing technologies, such tools are an indispensable part of today’s work life. We next highlight some
related techn…
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